SensorsPub Date : 2026-10-03DOI: 10.3390/s26196275
Pavel Alexandrovich Popov, Hamed Fathnejat, Farzad Jalaei, Arash Hosseini Gourabpasi
{"title":"Multi-Origin GIS Routing for Supply Chains and Logistics in Public Agencies, Municipalities, and Construction 4.0.","authors":"Pavel Alexandrovich Popov, Hamed Fathnejat, Farzad Jalaei, Arash Hosseini Gourabpasi","doi":"10.3390/s26196275","DOIUrl":"10.3390/s26196275","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>A Multi-Origin GIS Routing Web Tool is presented with the goal of facilitating GIS analytics for supply chain and logistics decision support for built assets. The tool routes multiple origins to a given destination, plots routes, and calculates travel distances. The tool is easy to use for non-experts, and it is free to use within limits and open source. The tool comes in two forms, including a highly portable web application with a GIS interface and a programmable API that can be integrated into existing programming, analytics, and optimization environments. The Multi-Origin GIS routing tool is built on existing open-source technologies in web-app mapping and GIS analysis, and makes them accessible for non-expert users who do not have the required software development or GIS domain knowledge. The tool provides a higher level of spatial analytics than other web-based tools such as Google Maps, MapQuest, or Bing Maps, without any of the complexity and domain knowledge required to use GIS software such as ArcGIS or QGIS. The tool allows public agencies and municipalities to use GIS analytics to resolve supply chain and logistics challenges while conserving public funds and remaining market-impartial. A case study is presented to show how cost vs. distance traveled analytics can be used for decision support in an AEC project using this tool. The case study results showed optimal supplier choices in terms of both distance and cost, with the trade-offs being clearly visible should a balanced solution be desired. The resulting routing is identical to routing that can be obtained through GIS software; however, the degree of difficulty is much lower, the approach does not require layer data preparation, and the results are summarily presented in an intuitive and easy-to-interpret manner that does not require in-depth examination. In addition, the tool is free for general use cases, which, compared to commercial logistics or research-oriented software, makes it highly attractive to organizations and projects where digitization is at low levels and budgets are limited. This tool represents an important first step in BIM-GIS integration in the low digitization environment of North American AEC and public asset management. Further development will be required to achieve bidirectional information exchange between BIM and GIS, IoT integration, and digital twin functionality. IoT sensor data incorporation, in particular, will enable full two-way data exchange between digital models and physical assets and enable digital twin functionality for logistics operations.</p>","PeriodicalId":21698,"journal":{"name":"Sensors","volume":"26 19","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13667399/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149196449","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"综合性期刊","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
SensorsPub Date : 2026-10-03DOI: 10.3390/s26196279
Marko Andjelković, Goran S Ristić
{"title":"Design of a Low-Cost Auto-Ranging Electrometer for Current-Mode Dosimetry.","authors":"Marko Andjelković, Goran S Ristić","doi":"10.3390/s26196279","DOIUrl":"10.3390/s26196279","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This paper presents a low-cost auto-ranging electrometer for current-mode dosimetric applications. The proposed electrometer is based on a variable gain transimpedance amplifier, and has been realized with commercially available components. It can operate as a stand-alone unit with an integrated display for real-time measurement visualization, or can be interfaced to a personal computer (PC) over USB or RS-232 connections, allowing real-time visualization and data storage using custom-made PC application software. The electrometer is capable of measuring direct currents from 50 pA to 10 µA in three sensitivity ranges, with relative error less than 2.5%, and response time of approximately 0.2 s in each range. The performance of the proposed electrometer is comparable with custom-made electrometers reported in the literature, as well as with several standard commercial dosimetric electrometers. The electrometer has been validated experimentally for measuring the direct current of four commercial PIN photodiodes under gamma irradiation from a Co-60 source. The results have shown that the realized electrometer, combined with the investigated PIN photodiodes, can serve as a low-cost current-mode dosimeter for measuring the gamma radiation dose rates from 0.9 Gy/h to 34 Gy/h, and absorbed doses at least up to 33 Gy.</p>","PeriodicalId":21698,"journal":{"name":"Sensors","volume":"26 19","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13667414/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149195474","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"综合性期刊","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
SensorsPub Date : 2026-10-03DOI: 10.3390/s26196281
Ibrahim Rashdan, Fabian de Ponte Müller, Stephan Sand, Giuseppe Caire
{"title":"Geometry-Based Stochastic Channel Model for Vehicle-to-Vulnerable Road Users Communications in Critical Scenarios.","authors":"Ibrahim Rashdan, Fabian de Ponte Müller, Stephan Sand, Giuseppe Caire","doi":"10.3390/s26196281","DOIUrl":"10.3390/s26196281","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Direct vehicle-to-vulnerable road user (V2VRU) communication can prevent accidents by enabling mutual awareness between vehicles and vulnerable road users (VRUs) such as pedestrians and cyclists. A prerequisite for developing reliable V2VRU communication systems is having a channel model that captures the main propagation characteristics of this specific link type. In this work, a measurement-based parameterization and validation of a WINNER-type V2VRU geometry-based stochastic channel model (GSCM) is presented at 5.2 GHz, based on single-input single-output (SISO) wideband channel measurements in urban environments. The three most critical accident-prone scenarios involving pedestrians and cyclists are considered. The large-scale parameters (LSPs), path loss, shadow fading, delay spread, K-factor, and angular spreads, are estimated from the measurement data and fitted to log-normal distributions. The results reveal propagation characteristics that differ substantially from those reported for vehicle-to-vehicle (V2V) channels, including significantly higher path loss exponents under obstructed conditions and distinct LSP correlation structures. The proposed model is validated statistically and further assessed through link-level simulations. The simulations show that commonly used V2V channel models fail to reproduce the error floor observed in the measured V2VRU channels, which highlights the importance of using dedicated channel models when evaluating V2VRU safety applications.</p>","PeriodicalId":21698,"journal":{"name":"Sensors","volume":"26 19","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13667466/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149196556","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"综合性期刊","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
SensorsPub Date : 2026-10-03DOI: 10.3390/s26196278
Zhen Yang, Lihang Wen, Weijing Qi, Lei Guo
{"title":"Joint Vehicle Selection and Resource Allocation for Hierarchical Federated Learning in Internet of Vehicles.","authors":"Zhen Yang, Lihang Wen, Weijing Qi, Lei Guo","doi":"10.3390/s26196278","DOIUrl":"10.3390/s26196278","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Hierarchical federated learning (HFL) in the Internet of Vehicles (IoV) faces challenges in participation reliability and aggregation efficiency due to vehicle mobility and resource heterogeneity. This paper investigates joint vehicle selection and resource allocation in a three-tier HFL architecture. In this framework, roadside units (RSUs) perform synchronous edge aggregation, while a macro base station (MBS) conducts asynchronous global aggregation. We derive a participation probability based on mobility, local computing capability, and statistical channel state information to construct the eligible vehicle set before final vehicle selection and channel allocation. Furthermore, we design an age-of-model (AoM)-aware policy to mitigate the impact of stale edge models. To maximize HFL training efficiency, we model the system as a multi-agent Markov decision process and propose a multi-agent discrete soft actor-critic (MA-DSAC) algorithm. Simulations on CIFAR-10 and Fashion-MNIST verify that MA-DSAC improves delay-constrained convergence, reducing the delay required to reach the target accuracy by up to 70% and maintaining a lower average AoM than the considered baselines.</p>","PeriodicalId":21698,"journal":{"name":"Sensors","volume":"26 19","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13667430/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149196546","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"综合性期刊","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
SensorsPub Date : 2026-10-03DOI: 10.3390/s26196285
Kaan Doğan Erdoğan, Nurettin Doğan
{"title":"Medical Image Encryption via CSPRNG-HKDF Key Scheduling, Fractional-Order Modified Chen Hyperchaos, and Dynamic DNA-ARX Diffusion.","authors":"Kaan Doğan Erdoğan, Nurettin Doğan","doi":"10.3390/s26196285","DOIUrl":"10.3390/s26196285","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Protecting medical images requires encryption methods that combine cryptographic key management with validated nonlinear transformations and effective diffusion mechanisms. This study proposes an encryption-instance-specific framework based on a CSPRNG-generated 256-bit session secret, HMAC-SHA-512-based HKDF with public NOAA/SWPC temporal context, a modified four-dimensional fractional-order Chen system, adaptive bit-plane permutation, position-dependent dynamic DNA transformation, and SPARKLE256-based two-pass ARX-duplex diffusion. The fractional operating region was evaluated through boundedness, Lyapunov-spectrum, bifurcation, phase-portrait, and modified 0-1 chaos analyses. All 10,000 sampled parameter triplets remained finite and bounded, all 1000 Lyapunov-grid configurations satisfied the hyperchaos criterion, and the minimum second Lyapunov exponent was 0.0546; the modified 0-1 test accepted all 35 representative cases with a median <i>K</i> value of 0.9971. For encrypted standard benchmark and medical images, entropy ranged from 7.9966 to 7.9978 bits. Across the 11 test images, the mean RGB NPCR and UACI values were 99.6115% and 33.4546%, respectively, while the corresponding grayscale means were 99.5999% and 33.4608%. Under NIST SP 800-22, the fractional modified Chen keystream satisfied 187 of 188 subtest rows (99.47%), while the operational ciphertext satisfied 185 of 188 rows (98.40%). In the 111-row Dieharder evaluation, the keystream produced 109 passed, 2 weak, and 0 failed outcomes, whereas the ciphertext produced 106 passed, 5 weak, and 0 failed outcomes. The optimized CPU implementation encrypted a 256 × 256 RGB image in 1356.327 ms, representing a 74.26-fold speedup relative to the 100,722.174 ms pure-Python 3.10.20 baseline. Overall, the results demonstrate strong statistical and differential characteristics while showing that the fractional-order chaotic generator remains the principal computational component of the proposed framework.</p>","PeriodicalId":21698,"journal":{"name":"Sensors","volume":"26 19","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13667584/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149196631","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"综合性期刊","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
SensorsPub Date : 2026-10-03DOI: 10.3390/s26196272
Manal Aich, Jamal El Aoufi, Ahmed Moussa
{"title":"Wearable Sensor Fusion for Psychophysiological Arousal Recognition in Air Traffic Control: A Fuzzy MCDM Approach.","authors":"Manal Aich, Jamal El Aoufi, Ahmed Moussa","doi":"10.3390/s26196272","DOIUrl":"10.3390/s26196272","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Recognizing psychophysiological arousal and strain from wearable sensors extends affective computing beyond discrete-emotion classification. Vigilance decrement during air traffic control (ATC) shifts illustrates this: the psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) cannot be administered while a controller is working. We develop and evaluate a wearable, label-free Vigilance/Strain Risk Index (F-VRI) for ATC operators, fusing five physiological signals via entropy-weighted fuzzy TOPSIS. The index was assessed in two samples: 38 controllers measured pre/post shift (preliminary, pilot-level evidence) and 13 trainees pre/post across simulator sessions (confirmatory validation). Compared with PVT, the fused index detected the pre/post change more reliably at the group level (simulator: <i>p</i> = 0.004 vs. <i>p</i> = 0.379) and at the individual level (68-80% directional concordance vs. 33-55% for PVT, at or below chance). Compared with five supervised machine learning baselines, the fuzzy index was the only method to remain significant under cross-domain transfer (both <i>p</i> < 0.05), while every supervised model failed in at least one direction. An exploratory extension revealed a weighting pathology in which static covariates absorbed disproportionate model weight, which led us to a two-layer state/trait architecture. These results support fuzzy MCDM as an interpretable sensor-fusion framework for psychophysiological state monitoring under uncertainty, with continuous, streaming deployment remaining a prospective extension requiring further validation; the field-cohort effect (<i>p</i> = 0.084) remains at the pilot level.</p>","PeriodicalId":21698,"journal":{"name":"Sensors","volume":"26 19","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13667544/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149196779","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"综合性期刊","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
SensorsPub Date : 2026-10-03DOI: 10.3390/s26196280
Dingxin Wu, Zheng Xu, Zhiyuan Wang, Kai Huang, Hong Ki An, Dewen Kong, Hongxin Wang, Zhicheng Shen
{"title":"Mask- and Coverage-Aware Traffic-State Assessment Under Sparse Probe-Vehicle Sensing.","authors":"Dingxin Wu, Zheng Xu, Zhiyuan Wang, Kai Huang, Hong Ki An, Dewen Kong, Hongxin Wang, Zhicheng Shen","doi":"10.3390/s26196280","DOIUrl":"10.3390/s26196280","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Probe-vehicle sensing can extend traffic observation beyond fixed detectors, but its sparse and uneven coverage complicates the interpretation of predicted traffic states. This study develops a mask- and coverage-aware framework for regional traffic-state assessment from sparse probe-vehicle speed observations. Segment-level data from Xuzhou, China, were aggregated into 32 regions at 15 min resolution; only 0.157% of segment-time cells were observed. A regional target was observable whenever at least one segment in its region was observed, and the observed-target ratio across the controlled test conditions ranged from 12.1% to 23.9%. Nine controlled-missingness conditions were used to evaluate one-step speed prediction, followed by deterministic evidence-fusion assessment using predicted speed, observation masks, coverage history, and neighboring-region evidence. Reference labels for 130 stratified region-time cases were independently assigned and adjudicated by two annotators. Among the evaluated deterministic variants on this cohort, the speed-plus-mask rule achieved the strongest overall classification performance, with 69.2% accuracy and 63.7% Macro-F1. Because 69.2% equals the majority-class share of the cohort by construction (90 of 130 cases are low severity), the rule's advantage is its cross-class discrimination (Macro-F1) rather than overall accuracy alone. Adding coverage reduced the false-severe rate from 5.6% to 2.8%, but also reduced overall classification performance, demonstrating an over-escalation-control-classification trade-off. On a limited 16-case protocol, a fixed, schema-constrained large language model achieved 97.5% modal-label repeatability across five repetitions but only 32.0% Macro-F1; its limited and imbalanced support precludes any full-cohort effectiveness claim. The findings show that sensing support should be retained as traffic-state assessment evidence and reported alongside prediction and traffic-state alert performance. On the same 130 cases, a balanced RBF-SVM reached 75.0% mean grouped out-of-fold accuracy and 64.6% Macro-F1, but all four headline-metric paired intervals versus speed plus mask crossed zero and its false-severe rate was higher (9.7% versus 5.6%); no method was uniformly superior.</p>","PeriodicalId":21698,"journal":{"name":"Sensors","volume":"26 19","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13667480/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149196675","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"综合性期刊","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
SensorsPub Date : 2026-10-03DOI: 10.3390/s26196274
Chayeong Kim, Eunsik Noh, Wonkyu Moon, Kumjae Shin
{"title":"A Study on a Sector-Shaped Cantilever Diaphragm for Frequency-Response Improvement of an Acoustic Sensor Based on Piezoresistive Effect in MOSFET.","authors":"Chayeong Kim, Eunsik Noh, Wonkyu Moon, Kumjae Shin","doi":"10.3390/s26196274","DOIUrl":"10.3390/s26196274","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This study investigates an acoustic sensor that exploits the piezoresistive effect of a field-effect transistor (PrFET) with a sector-shaped cantilever that improves frequency-response characteristics. PrFET energy transduction is capable of detecting acoustic signals by adopting an acoustically responsive sensing structure. However, it has not been investigated whether PrFET acoustic sensors can exhibit signal-response characteristics that differ from those previously reported. To investigate whether the sensor response could be enhanced at a specific frequency, this study adopted a sector-shaped cantilever diaphragm. The sector-shaped cantilever has a free end at the center, allowing for greater stress to be induced in the piezoresistive channel under acoustic excitation. The acousto-mechanical response of the proposed structure was characterized in terms of its displacement under acoustic excitation and the resulting stress induced in the PrFET at the support. A PrFET acoustic sensor incorporating the designed diaphragm was then fabricated, and the sensitivity enhancement and the formation of a specific resonance frequency was experimentally validated.</p>","PeriodicalId":21698,"journal":{"name":"Sensors","volume":"26 19","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13667680/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149196372","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"综合性期刊","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
SensorsPub Date : 2026-10-03DOI: 10.3390/s26196271
Yuansheng Chen, Hao Lou, Yiyang He, Jian Wang, Shaona Liu
{"title":"Development of a Novel Combined Wind-Rain Piezoelectric Energy Harvester.","authors":"Yuansheng Chen, Hao Lou, Yiyang He, Jian Wang, Shaona Liu","doi":"10.3390/s26196271","DOIUrl":"10.3390/s26196271","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Aiming at the unstable power output of single-source piezoelectric energy harvesters for ecological monitoring in bird nature reserves, this work develops a novel combined wind-rain piezoelectric energy harvester and establishes a complete numerical modeling framework. The proposed device integrates a snowflake-shaped bluff body for broadband vortex-induced wind energy capture and a self-tilting water container for raindrop gravitational potential energy collection, with both excitation sources equipped with independent piezoelectric cantilevers that share a unified passive parallel-synchronized switch harvesting on inductor (P-SSHI) interface circuit for coordinated energy conversion of two ambient energy sources. A full set of closed-loop theoretical formulas covering rain potential energy, vortex-induced aerodynamic excitation, electromechanical coupling, and LC-resonance-based voltage inversion is derived. Static finite element analysis, Multisim circuit simulation, and oscilloscope-based bench-scale experiments are implemented to evaluate structural deformation, stress distribution, output voltage, impedance-matched power, and steady-state load performance. Simulation and experimental results validate the rationality of the structural scheme and mathematical model. All validations are performed under laboratory-simulated conditions, and long-term field meteorological tests are reserved for future investigations. The compact low-noise proof-of-concept prototype shows application potential for field monitoring nodes, and the established modeling framework provides design references for multi-source kinetic-energy harvesters.</p>","PeriodicalId":21698,"journal":{"name":"Sensors","volume":"26 19","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-10-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13667678/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149196093","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"综合性期刊","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
SensorsPub Date : 2026-10-02DOI: 10.3390/s26196252
Boyeon Koh, Dongjun Lee, Ungdai Ko
{"title":"Efficient Azimuth Image-Quality Prediction for Block-Design in Squinted Spotlight SAR Imaging.","authors":"Boyeon Koh, Dongjun Lee, Ungdai Ko","doi":"10.3390/s26196252","DOIUrl":"10.3390/s26196252","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This paper presents an efficient image-quality prediction method for planning block processing in squinted spotlight synthetic aperture radar (SAR) imaging. Before real SAR data are divided into processing blocks, candidate processing-reference locations and feasible block extents must be evaluated. Repeated evaluation using a full two-dimensional focusing processor is computationally expensive and is therefore inefficient for iterative planning. To overcome this problem, first, a new one-dimensional azimuth-compression kernel is derived by applying the principle of stationary phase (POSP) to the azimuth-phase component of the SAR signal. Second, the possibility of replacing the full two-dimensional ω-k kernel with the derived kernel is mathematically analyzed by examining the residual quadratic phase and its range-frequency dependence. Third, applying the derived kernel to initial block design substantially reduces the computation time. In the present study, idealized platform trajectory and ground-surface conditions are assumed. Under these assumptions, the proposed kernel predicts azimuth resolution, peak sidelobe ratio (PSLR), and integrated sidelobe ratio (ISLR). These metrics are then used as image-quality criteria for initial block design. Simulations using 36 point targets distributed over a 1.5 km × 1.5 km test area demonstrate that the proposed 1D kernel closely matches the image quality obtained using the full ω-k kernel. These results demonstrate that the proposed 1D azimuth-compression kernel can efficiently replace full ω-k processing during initial block design.</p>","PeriodicalId":21698,"journal":{"name":"Sensors","volume":"26 19","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-10-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13667596/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149196440","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"综合性期刊","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}