Biomolecules最新文献

{"title":"Modulation of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid Production and Nutritional Lipid Quality Indices in <i>Rhodotorula mucilaginosa</i> 6S Using Molasses as a Sustainable Carbon Source.","authors":"Ivis Páez, Edgar Uquiche, Adalberto Pessoa, Robinson Soto-Ramirez, Paola Díaz-Navarrete","doi":"10.3390/biom16091294","DOIUrl":"10.3390/biom16091294","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Microbial lipids produced by oleaginous yeasts are a sustainable alternative to conventional lipid sources because of their ability to generate nutritionally valuable fatty acids. This study evaluated the effects of carbon-to-nitrogen (C/N) ratio, modified through molasses concentration, and cultivation temperature (15 and 25 °C) on biomass production, lipid accumulation, fatty acid composition, and nutritional quality of lipids produced by the native yeast <i>Rhodotorula mucilaginosa</i> 6S. Biomass, lipids, sugar consumption, and growth kinetics were determined, while fatty acid composition was analyzed by gas chromatography and nutritional quality was assessed through lipid nutritional indices. Biomass production was mainly influenced by the C/N ratio, whereas temperature had the greatest effect on lipid accumulation and fatty acid composition. Cultivation at 25 °C enhanced lipid yield and productivity, while 15 °C promoted faster growth and higher accumulation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), resulting in lipids with superior nutritional quality. The combination of 15 °C and a C/N ratio of 12 produced the most favorable lipid profile, with higher unsaturation, improved PUFA/SFA and MUFA/SFA ratios, balanced ω-6/ω-3 and LA/ALA ratios, low atherogenicity and thrombogenicity indices, and a high hypocholesterolemic/hypercholesterolemic ratio. These findings demonstrate the potential of molasses as a sustainable substrate for producing high-quality microbial lipids.</p>","PeriodicalId":8943,"journal":{"name":"Biomolecules","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-09-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604044/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149058189","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Bufalin-Loaded Multifunctional Nanodrugs for Cancer Therapy: Mechanisms, Delivery Strategies, and Translational Perspectives.","authors":"Yanrui Yang, Xinyue Zeng, Yuqiao Hu, Yufei Su, Chengqi Li, Fajin Lv, Kehui Zhao, Jing Hu","doi":"10.3390/biom16091297","DOIUrl":"10.3390/biom16091297","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Bufalin is a naturally occurring bufadienolide with broad-spectrum anticancer activity. Unlike conventional cytotoxic agents, bufalin exerts pleiotropic antitumour effects by directly modulating oncogenic proteins and promoting their degradation. It also disrupts metabolic plasticity, induces multiple forms of regulated cell death, counteracts therapeutic resistance, and remodels the immunosuppressive tumour microenvironment. However, the further application of bufalin is hindered by poor aqueous solubility, rapid systemic clearance, a narrow therapeutic window, and dose-limiting toxicity. Nanodrug delivery systems (NDDSs) offer a promising strategy for translating these interconnected pharmacological effects into spatially and temporally controlled therapeutic responses. This review summarises the distinctive anticancer mechanisms of bufalin and systematically evaluates the organic, inorganic, biomimetic, and hybrid nanocarriers developed for its delivery. Particular attention is given to tumour-responsive drug release, the targeting of cancer stem cells, the induction of ferroptosis and pyroptosis, metabolic modulation, sensitisation to phototherapy, and the activation of antitumour immunity. Finally, the major translational challenges are critically examined to inform the further rational development of bufalin-based nanomedicines.</p>","PeriodicalId":8943,"journal":{"name":"Biomolecules","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-09-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604801/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149057494","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Epilepsy as a Disorder of Neuroimmune Metabolism: The Kynurenine Pathway as a Link Between Cognitive and Psychiatric Dysfunction.","authors":"Trevor W Stone, Felix I L Clanchy, Richard O Williams","doi":"10.3390/biom16091300","DOIUrl":"10.3390/biom16091300","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>In this narrative review we summarise some of the roles played by glutamate and its receptors in both epilepsy and schizophrenia, before presenting the kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism as a generator of compounds acting at least partly by modulating those receptors. Increasing evidence indicates that epilepsy involves interactions between neuronal excitability, cellular metabolism and immune system signalling. The kynurenine pathway of tryptophan metabolism occupies a central position within this neuroimmune-metabolic network through its regulation of glutamatergic neurotransmission and both innate and adaptive arms of the immune response. The modulation of glutamate receptors is achieved by activating NMDA-sensitive sites by quinolinic acid and the blockade of all glutamate ionotropic receptors by kynurenic acid. In addition, emerging evidence is discussed which implicates the <i>GRIA3</i>-mediated AMPA receptor subunit GluA3 function in epilepsy and schizophrenia, and observations suggesting antagonistic actions of 3-hydroxykynurenine at kainate receptors. The evidence reviewed suggests that the modulation of the kynurenine pathway metabolism may be relevant to the development of agents which increase understanding of the mechanisms involved in epilepsy, while also addressing the psychiatric and systemic inflammatory disorders that frequently accompany it. A dysregulation of neuroimmune metabolism represents a framework for improved understanding of epilepsy and its associated neuropsychiatric comorbidities, while highlighting opportunities and challenges for therapies targeting glutamatergic and immunometabolic pathways.</p>","PeriodicalId":8943,"journal":{"name":"Biomolecules","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-09-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604427/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149058260","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Circulating Extracellular Vesicle Biomarkers in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia: A Preliminary Study on Their Diagnostic, Prognostic, and Predictive Relevance.","authors":"Ilaria Laurenzana, Antonella Caivano, Alessio Di Ciancia, Oreste Villani, Maddalena Maietti, Angelo De Stradis, Giovanni D'Arena, Filomena Nozza, Luciana De Luca, Daniela Lamorte","doi":"10.3390/biom16091293","DOIUrl":"10.3390/biom16091293","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background/objectives: </strong>Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is characterized by marked clinical heterogeneity, underscoring the need for reliable biomarkers to improve diagnosis and risk stratification. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) represent promising liquid biopsy candidates because they reflect the molecular profile of their cells of origin. In CLL, CD200 is a well-established marker of tumor cells; its expression on EVs and its role as a CLL biomarker were poorly characterized. This study investigated the diagnostic and prognostic value of serum EVs in CLL.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Serum EVs were isolated from 83 patients with CLL and 20 healthy subjects (HS). EV morphology, size, and concentration were assessed by transmission electron microscopy and nanoparticle tracking analysis. Flow cytometry was used to evaluate the expression of CD19, CD20, and CD200 on EVs, while digital PCR quantified EV-associated miR-93-5p, miR-125b-5p, miR-150-5p, and miR-484.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Compared with HS, CLL patients showed increased total EV counts and higher levels of CD19⁺, CD20⁺, CD200⁺, and CD19⁺/CD20⁺ EVs, together with enhanced CD20 and CD200 expression and reduced miR-93-5p, miR-125b-5p, and miR-484 levels. In contrast, EV-associated miR-150-5p levels were comparable between CLL patients and HS. EV features were correlated with clinical and biological characteristics, including disease stage, cytogenetic abnormalities, treatment, and time to treatment (TTT). Older age was associated with lower EV concentrations but higher CD20 and CD200 expression. Advanced-stage disease was characterized by smaller EVs with increased CD200 expression. Notably, elevated CD200⁺ EV levels and reduced CD19 expression were associated with shorter TTT and earlier treatment initiation.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Multiparametric profiling identified distinct quantitative, phenotypic, and molecular features of CLL-derived EVs and revealed CD200 as a novel EV-associated biomarker. These findings support the clinical utility of serum EVs as a new valuable approach for CLL diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment prediction.</p>","PeriodicalId":8943,"journal":{"name":"Biomolecules","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-09-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604536/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149058035","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Darapladib Ameliorates Radiation-Induced Skin Injury and Fibrosis by Lipoprotein-Associated Phospholipase A2 Inhibition.","authors":"Ji-Eun Park, Narae Kim, So-Ra Kim, Soo-Ho Lee, Yoon-Jin Lee, Kwang Seok Kim","doi":"10.3390/biom16091292","DOIUrl":"10.3390/biom16091292","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Current studies have elucidated the mechanisms of radiation-induced skin injury (RISI) and identified several medical countermeasures to reduce its severity. However, no treatment has yet proven effective in preventing or reversing radiation-induced skin fibrosis. Here, we show that radiation upregulates lipoprotein-associated phospholipase A2 (Lp-PLA₂) expression and induces endothelial cell dysfunction, characterized by an increased DNA damage response and reduced tube-forming capacity and mitochondrial function. To define the role of Lp-PLA₂ in the progression of RISI, we treated human dermal microvascular endothelial cells and the skin of SKH1 hairless mice with darapladib, a selective Lp-PLA₂ inhibitor. In endothelial cells, darapladib attenuated radiation-induced cellular damage and suppressed endothelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EndoMT). In irradiated mouse skin, darapladib reduced radiation-induced inflammation, adipose tissue disruption, dermal thickness, and skin fibrosis. Notably, darapladib modulated macrophage polarization and inhibited radiation-induced macrophage infiltration in irradiated skin. These findings suggest that Lp-PLA₂ inhibition may reveal potential targets for the treatment of RISI and other fibrotic skin diseases.</p>","PeriodicalId":8943,"journal":{"name":"Biomolecules","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-09-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604122/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149058077","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Hepatitis B Virus: Epidemiology, Prophylaxis, Therapy, Clinical Outcomes, and Novel Therapeutic Directions.","authors":"Uzair Iqbal, Khadija Khalid, Yunus Yukselten, Farooq Ahmad, Haseeb Ahmad, Abdur Rehman Khalid, Mohamed Shaltout, Richard E Sutton","doi":"10.3390/biom16091290","DOIUrl":"10.3390/biom16091290","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection is a worldwide health concern that infects nearly 254 million people globally and causes more than 1 million deaths annually. The highest prevalence is seen in sub-Saharan Africa and the Western Pacific region. Cirrhosis, liver failure, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) are reported as leading complications of chronic HBV. The route of transmission of this infection is mainly by exposure to infected blood and bodily fluids. Transmission from mother-to-child remains the predominant route in highly endemic areas. Vaccination has significantly reduced HBV seroprevalence and complications. However, incomplete vaccination of newborns continues to be a major obstacle to elimination of the disease. Current prevention strategies include universal vaccination, perinatal prophylaxis with hepatitis B immune globulin, and maternal antiviral therapy in pregnant women with high viral load. The management of chronic hepatitis B virus infection predominantly depends on nucleoside analogs, including entecavir, tenofovir disoproxil fumarate, and tenofovir alafenamide, as well as pegylated interferon alfa. These therapies effectively suppress viral replication and reduce the risks of cirrhosis, HCC, and liver-related mortality, but they rarely achieve functional cure characterized by hepatitis B surface antigen loss. The persistence of covalently closed circular DNA (cccDNA) remains a major hindrance in HBV eradication. Therefore, novel therapeutic strategies targeting different stages of the viral life cycle, including capsid assembly modulators, small interfering RNAs, nucleic acid polymers, and cccDNA-directed approaches, are under active investigation. This review summarizes the epidemiology, prevention, current therapies, clinical outcomes, and emerging therapeutic advances in HBV infection, highlighting ongoing efforts toward achieving a functional cure and global HBV elimination.</p>","PeriodicalId":8943,"journal":{"name":"Biomolecules","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-09-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604215/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149057556","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Nexus of Gut Microbiome, Microbial Metabolites, and Colonization Resistance Against Enteric Pathogens.","authors":"Mengwan Jiang, Mingke Yang, Peixuan Du, Zhongke Sun","doi":"10.3390/biom16091291","DOIUrl":"10.3390/biom16091291","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The gut microbiome is a complex ecological system crucial to human physiology. Commensal microbes in the gut provide resistance against pathogenic colonization, mainly due to their metabolites. Though studies have revealed a few mechanisms of microbial metabolite-mediated colonization resistance, various commensal microbes in the gut produce versatile metabolites and confront different pathogens. To pave the way for microbial metabolite-based treatment, clarification of what microbes and derived metabolites contribute to colonization resistance is a central topic. This focused review addressed the nexus of the gut microbiome, microbial metabolites, and colonization resistance against three representative pathogens, namely <i>Clostridioides difficile</i>, <i>Salmonella enterica</i> subspecies <i>enterica serovar</i> Typhimurium, and vancomycin-resistant <i>Enterococcus</i>. Different microbes and microbial metabolites involved in colonization resistance against these pathogens are discussed. Microbial metabolites, mainly short-chain fatty acids, secondary bile acids, and bacteriocins, were included. The emerging role of signal molecules in combating pathogenic infections is also addressed. In contrast to others, we further discussed different strategies that can enhance microbial metabolite-mediated colonization resistance, such as precise microbial preparation, targeted proliferation of a protective metabolite-producing microbiome, regulation of dietary patterns to optimize metabolic homeostasis, enhancing the local concentration of metabolites in the gut, and host-matched intervention.</p>","PeriodicalId":8943,"journal":{"name":"Biomolecules","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-09-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604788/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149058444","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Dynamic Atlas and Energy Metabolism Adaptation of the Liver Proteome During a 24 h Cycle in <i>Vespertilio sinensis</i>.","authors":"Tianhui Wang, Yujia Chu, Xin Li, Haokun Zheng, Jiang Feng, Hui Wang","doi":"10.3390/biom16091289","DOIUrl":"10.3390/biom16091289","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Circadian rhythms regulate hepatic metabolism and physiological homeostasis, which are essential for organisms to adapt to environmental cycles. Bats are the only mammals capable of sustained powered flight, accompanied by extreme metabolic demands and a nocturnal lifestyle. However, the regulatory mechanisms underlying hepatic circadian rhythms in bats remain poorly understood. Herein, we employed data-independent acquisition (DIA)-based quantitative proteomics to characterize the diurnal dynamics of hepatic proteins in <i>Vespertilio sinensis</i> across four representative physiological states, and further conducted integrative multi-omics analysis combined with transcriptomic data. The results revealed that approximately 5% of hepatic proteins exhibited circadian rhythmicity in <i>V. sinensis</i>, a proportion markedly higher than that of rhythmic transcripts and metabolites. Prominent transcription-protein rhythm decoupling was observed, implying that post-transcriptional regulatory processes may play critical roles in shaping circadian rhythms. Core metabolic pathways displayed temporally dynamic enrichment. The diurnal functional switching of the liver was achieved via stable expression of core proteins and temporal turnover of specific proteins, which efficiently coordinated energy supply, oxidative defense and detoxification metabolism. Trend clustering and functional enrichment analyses suggested that the liver may undergo lysosome-mediated immune repair during the daytime, while exhibiting enriched energy metabolic profiles that potentially support the elevated energy expenditure required for flight at night. This study systematically elucidates the protein regulatory patterns underlying hepatic diurnal rhythms in <i>V. sinensis</i>, and provides molecular clues for exploring extreme energy adaptation and circadian evolutionary scenarios in nocturnal flying mammals.</p>","PeriodicalId":8943,"journal":{"name":"Biomolecules","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-09-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604595/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149058135","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"scFlowReport: A Reproducible Workflow for Comparative Downstream Biological Analysis of Single-Cell RNA-seq Data.","authors":"Nayoung Park, Hyewon Lee, Jaebum Kim","doi":"10.3390/biom16091288","DOIUrl":"10.3390/biom16091288","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) studies are frequently organized around comparisons-disease versus control, treatment response, or genetic perturbation-yet biological interpretation still depends on integrating multiple independent downstream analyses for differential expression, functional enrichment, regulatory network inference, and cell-cell communication analysis. Applying these tools consistently across comparisons typically requires substantial custom scripting, and their heterogeneous outputs must be manually harmonized before the results can be compared or reported together. We present scFlowReport, a lightweight, configuration-driven workflow that propagates a single user-defined comparison across cell-level and sample-aware pseudobulk differential expression, over-representation and ranked functional enrichment, transcription-factor regulon export for SCENIC, and group-resolved LIANA cell-cell communication analysis, starting from an already annotated Seurat object. The workflow automatically compiles complementary downstream results into standardized figures, summary tables, and a self-contained static HTML report that can be readily inspected and shared without requiring a persistent server. Application of scFlowReport to a publicly available Atopic Dermatitis scRNA-seq dataset demonstrated its utility by enabling researchers to obtain complementary biological evidence from multiple established downstream analyses. By coordinating complementary downstream analyses under a shared comparison framework, scFlowReport provides a practical and reproducible workflow for systematic interpretation of comparative single-cell transcriptomic data.</p>","PeriodicalId":8943,"journal":{"name":"Biomolecules","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-09-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604200/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149058365","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Laccase-Mediated Fabrication of Food Packaging Films: A Critical Review of Functional Performance, Safety, and Industrial Viability.","authors":"Alessandro D'Annibale, Rosita Marabottini","doi":"10.3390/biom16091285","DOIUrl":"10.3390/biom16091285","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Although natural biopolymers represent promising sustainable packaging alternatives, their weak mechanical and barrier properties limit industrial use. While previous reviews focus on descriptive aspects of enzymatic modification, this review fills a critical literature gap by systematically bridging molecular-level laccase-driven reactions with quantitative techno-economic and safety and regulatory frameworks. We evaluate the kinetic and topological differences between direct tyrosyl-coupled protein homopolymerisation and mediator-assisted 'graft-then-link' polysaccharide strategies. Crucially, we analyse how entrapment versus surface-immobilised architectures dictate mass-transfer regimes, establishing their specific functional fitness for active oxygen scavenging or intelligent time-temperature monitoring. Beyond physical performance, we critically assess the translational bottlenecks currently hindering industrial scaling. For the first time, we integrate a quantitative techno-economic analysis using the Technology Readiness Level (TRL) framework, demonstrating that active film fabrication costs (EUR 0.01-0.10/m²) are heavily offset by high-protein food waste savings (>EUR 2.00/kg). Finally, we navigate European and US regulatory landscapes for enzymatically active materials and evaluate safety risks via the Threshold of Toxicological Concern (TTC) model and deterministic migration modelling. This comprehensive analysis establishes a 'Safe-by-Design' paradigm, guiding the scalable development of intrinsically safe, high-performance biocatalytic packaging.</p>","PeriodicalId":8943,"journal":{"name":"Biomolecules","volume":"16 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":5.6,"publicationDate":"2026-09-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13604187/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149058151","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"生物学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}