Sensors & diagnostics最新文献

{"title":"Applicability of a bipolar electrode arrangement involving ion-selective electrodes in vertical farming, with the self-controlled supply of macro- and microcomponents","authors":"Ewa Jaworska, Agata Michalska and Krzysztof Maksymiuk","doi":"10.1039/D5SD00193E","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1039/D5SD00193E","url":null,"abstract":"<p >All-solid-state potentiometric ion-selective electrodes (ISEs) with plastic membranes are attractive analytical tools due to the simplicity of the apparatus and their ease of use. The implementation of ISEs into a bipolar electrode system working in self-powered mode would open new and attractive possibilities, far beyond typical analytical purposes. In the present work, the applicability of such systems for vertical farming, <em>e.g.</em>, in hydroponics, is evaluated as a proof of concept. This approach can be used for long-term monitoring of the concentration of electrolytes (macrocomponents, <em>e.g.</em>, potassium or chloride ions) in solutions. Another innovative application proposed herein utilizes the properties of the bipolar electrode system to allow for self-adjustment of the concentrations of components <em>via</em> spontaneous charge transfer processes occurring at both poles of the bipolar electrode. We demonstrate that a self-powered bipolar electrode system composed of an active metal (zinc) and an ISE can be applied for the controlled release of minute amounts of microelements, in this case, zinc ions. The ion flux is selectively controlled by a chemical stimulus, namely, the composition and concentration of a neutral electrolyte (macrocomponents), as well as the properties of the bipolar electrode system.</p>","PeriodicalId":74786,"journal":{"name":"Sensors & diagnostics","volume":" 4","pages":" 543-551"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2026/sd/d5sd00193e?page=search","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147733057","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Snapshot of long COVID in young adults: fast screening using electronic noses","authors":"José Alberto Ulloa-Rosales, Sofía Bernal-Silva, Mariana Palau-Vázquez, Sandra Cadena-Mota, Luz Eugenia Alcántara-Quintana, Jan Mitrovics, Fátima Rosales-Arellano, Luis Daniel Becerra-Montes, Gabriela Flores-Rangel, Andreu Comas-García, Boris Mizaikoff and Lorena Díaz de León-Martínez","doi":"10.1039/D5SD00204D","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1039/D5SD00204D","url":null,"abstract":"<p > <em>Background</em>: Long COVID (LC) is a multisystemic condition characterized by persistent symptoms following SARS-CoV-2 infection. Although most research focuses on older or hospitalized individuals, young adults are frequently overlooked despite significant effects on their academic, professional, and social functioning. <em>Methods</em>: This cross-sectional study evaluated 78 university students (median age 20 years; 56.4% female) with prior COVID-19 infection, classified according to the WHO Delphi consensus definition. Sociodemographic, clinical, and spirometry data were collected, and exhaled breath samples were analyzed using an electronic nose system (e-Nose) under controlled conditions. Chemometric and machine learning techniques—Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Partial Least Squares–Discriminant Analysis (PLS-DA), Canonical Analysis of Principal Coordinates (CAP), and Random Forest (RF)—were applied to identify LC-associated volatile organic compound (VOC) patterns. <em>Findings</em>: LC prevalence was 29.5%. Acute-phase fatigue, (odds ratio) (OR = 3.22), dyspnea (OR = 6.09), nausea (OR = 3.57), and vomiting (OR = 11.37) were significantly associated with LC. Post-acute anosmia (OR = 3.65), sleep disturbances (OR = 4.34), and bradycardia were also more frequent among LC cases. All participants exhibited normal spirometry. e-Nose data revealed distinct group-associated VOC patterns and demonstrated promising discriminatory potential between LC and control participants (PCA variance 94.1%; CAP <em>R</em><small>²</small> = 0.95; PLS-DA accuracy 97.4%, <em>Q</em><small>²</small> = 0.534). The RF model achieved an out-of-bag error of 3.42% and receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) area under the curve (AUC) of 0.966. <em>Interpretation</em>: Nearly one-third of young adults experienced LC despite normal pulmonary function, suggesting substantial subclinical and systemic alterations. e-Nose breath analysis represents a promising, non-invasive, and rapid approach for LC screening; while these findings support the feasibility of breath-based screening for LC, further validation in larger and independent cohorts is required before clinical implementation.</p>","PeriodicalId":74786,"journal":{"name":"Sensors & diagnostics","volume":" 4","pages":" 534-542"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2026/sd/d5sd00204d?page=search","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147733056","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Development of an integrated label-free electrochemical sensor with sample collection for the detection of Acinetobacter baumannii","authors":"Sallam Al-Madhagi, Souna Elwary, Luay Fawzi Abuqatouseh and Mohammed Zourob","doi":"10.1039/D5SD00130G","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1039/D5SD00130G","url":null,"abstract":"<p > <em>Acinetobacter</em>, a genus of bacteria capable of infecting humans, is found in the healthcare environment. <em>Acinetobacter baumannii</em> (<em>A. baumannii</em>), which is one of the most important species in the genus <em>Acinetobacter</em>, causes bloodstream, wound, and pneumonia infections in immunocompromised patients. This bacterium adapts to various conditions and develops antibiotic resistance, making it challenging to manage in healthcare settings. In this study, an integrated label-free electrochemical sensor was developed for the detection of <em>A. baumannii</em> non-coding RNA (ncRNA). This integrated sensing platform, consisting of two parts: the sample collection unit and the detection electrode, has been developed. The sample collection was fabricated from paper for collecting the sample and integrated with a heating probe for lysing the bacteria and releasing the ncRNA. The detection mechanism relies on the hybridization of the bacterial ncRNA to the thiolated complementary sequences immobilized on the sensor surface. The sensor employed a three-electrode chip and square wave voltammetry (SWV). The increase in the current due to the hybridization event with the target ncRNA was quantified. To create a user-friendly sensor, sample collection pads were integrated with the electrochemical sensor, which was subsequently employed to collect and identify bacteria from contaminated surfaces. The developed sensor exhibits high selectivity and sensitivity, with a 5 pM limit of detection (LoD) and 15 pM limit of quantification (LoQ), respectively. It has been demonstrated that the sensor has the capability to detect non-coding RNA from <em>A. baumannii</em> in samples from cell cultures. This sensor offers a promising approach for direct bacterial detection in a single device, eliminating the need for multiple pre-test steps or DNA amplification.</p>","PeriodicalId":74786,"journal":{"name":"Sensors & diagnostics","volume":" 3","pages":" 404-412"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2026/sd/d5sd00130g?page=search","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147558611","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Recent progress in current and emerging techniques for the detection of PFAS – the forever chemicals","authors":"Vibhas Chugh, Paul Gaskin and Waye Zhang","doi":"10.1039/D5SD00166H","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1039/D5SD00166H","url":null,"abstract":"<p >Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are now regulated at ultra-trace levels in drinking water, with guideline values in the low ng L<small>⁻¹</small> (ppt) range in many jurisdictions, demanding highly sensitive, robust, and cost-effective monitoring tools. Regulatory drivers increasingly emphasize not only detection of legacy PFAS such as PFOS and PFOA, but also broader chemical coverage, routine compliance monitoring, and rapid screening at the point of use. This review critically surveys PFAS sensor technologies developed over the last decade, encompassing optical (colorimetric, fluorescence, and surface plasmon resonance), electrochemical (voltammetric, impedimetric, and potentiometric), and emerging biosensing and whole-cell reporter platforms. For each sensor class, typical limits of detection (from low ppb down to sub-ppt in optimized systems), dynamic ranges, regeneration, and compatibility with repeated measurements in real and complex water matrices are summarized. The underlying recognition and transduction principles—including molecularly imprinted polymers, host–guest interactions, ion-selective membranes, nanomaterial-enhanced interfaces, and biological recognition elements—are highlighted to connect materials design with analytical performance. Across these platforms, key advantages include miniaturization, rapid response, and potential integration into portable or on-line monitoring systems, whereas major limitations involve selectivity among structurally similar PFAS, matrix interferences, long-term stability, and limited multi-analyte capability. This review discusses how current research addresses these challenges through preconcentration strategies, sensor arrays, nanostructured materials, and integrated sample handling, and outlines future directions toward regulatory-grade, field-deployable PFAS sensors capable of continuous monitoring, multiplex detection, and scalable deployment in drinking water and environmental surveillance.</p>","PeriodicalId":74786,"journal":{"name":"Sensors & diagnostics","volume":" 3","pages":" 305-325"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2026/sd/d5sd00166h?page=search","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147558507","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Recognition of illicit date rape drugs: a luminescence sensing perspective","authors":"Sunita Kyndait, Trisha Das, Dikshit Bokotial and Aniket Chowdhury","doi":"10.1039/D5SD00186B","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1039/D5SD00186B","url":null,"abstract":"<p >The consumption of recreational and addictive substances has rapidly increased owing to the legalisation of cannabinoids and the emergence of new potent synthetic psychoactive substances such as stimulants, depressants, and opioids. Moreover, due to lucrative financial aspects, the cooperation between international organised criminal syndicates has led to a surge in the worldwide distribution of narcotics. The use of darknet, encrypted software, and untraceable communication has also complicated the detection and confiscation of the drugs. Although the major attention of the law enforcement has been directed towards addictive substances, the non-lethal party drugs or illicit date rape drugs have gradually emerged, which could induce long-term psychological and physical trauma on the victim. Several heavy instrument-based and portable devices are now commercially available for their detection, which rely on various spectroscopic and spectrometric principles. The use of luminescent molecules in this regard proves beneficial due to their portability, sensitivity, selectivity, and, most importantly, sensing capacity even in clandestine environments. Although several literature reports are available on the sensing of illicit narcotics encompassing all types of psychoactive drugs, such as opioids, cathinones, cannabinoids, and synthetics, a comprehensive exploration of illicit date rape drugs remains elusive. Therefore, in this perspective, an attempt is made to comprehensively evaluate all types of luminescent sensors, which are reported for the detection of illicit date rape drugs, including GHB, benzodiazepines and ketamine.</p>","PeriodicalId":74786,"journal":{"name":"Sensors & diagnostics","volume":" 4","pages":" 488-521"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2026/sd/d5sd00186b?page=search","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147733019","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"1,8-Naphthalimide-derived reactivity-based fluorescent probes for detection and imaging of H2S","authors":"Mannanthara Kunhumon Noushija, Alenthwar Vamshi Krishna and Sankarasekaran Shanmugaraju","doi":"10.1039/D5SD00201J","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1039/D5SD00201J","url":null,"abstract":"<p >Hydrogen sulfide (H<small>₂</small>S) is both an important biological signaling molecule and a toxic environmental pollutant, making its precise detection essential for biomedical research and environmental monitoring. Among the various sensing platforms available, amino-1,8-naphthalimide (<strong>Nap</strong>)-based fluorescent probes have become powerful tools for real-time H<small>₂</small>S detection due to their high sensitivity, excellent selectivity, biocompatibility, and quick response. <strong>Nap</strong> fluorophores offer several inherent advantages—including strong and tunable emission, prominent intramolecular charge-transfer (ICT) characteristics, large Stokes shifts, and easy structural modification—making them especially attractive as scaffolds for developing activity-based probes. This review highlights recent developments in <strong>Nap</strong>-derived fluorescent sensors for H<small>₂</small>S detection, categorizing the probes based on their reactive sites and sensing mechanisms, such as thiolysis, reduction, and nucleophilic substitution. For each category, we explore structure–function relationships, photophysical properties, sensing performance, and practical applications in biological and environmental settings. Finally, we address current challenges and future directions in designing next-generation <strong>Nap</strong>-based probes with enhanced ratiometric responses, targeted subcellular localization, two-photon excitation capabilities, and improved suitability for <em>in vivo</em> imaging. Overall, this review offers a comprehensive perspective to guide the rational development of innovative fluorescent tools for accurate and efficient H<small>₂</small>S detection.</p>","PeriodicalId":74786,"journal":{"name":"Sensors & diagnostics","volume":" 2","pages":" 184-207"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2026/sd/d5sd00201j?page=search","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146216728","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Comparative performance of graphene and MXenes in flexible pressure sensors","authors":"Mohammed Nabeel, Nabil Kadhim Taieh, Mohammed Ahmed Shehab, Ying Li, Guangjun Gou, Adnan A. AbdulRazak and Khalid T. Rashid","doi":"10.1039/D5SD00223K","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1039/D5SD00223K","url":null,"abstract":"<p >Two-dimensional nano-conductors have led to the rapid development of flexible pressure sensors; however, studies need to establish direct application-based evaluations between MXene and graphene platforms. Specifically, this review synthesizes recent progress across sensing mechanisms (piezoresistive, capacitive, piezoelectric, and triboelectric), device architectures (microstructured films, porous foams/aerogels, textiles, and hybrid stacks), and performance metrics relevant to wearables and soft robotics. In particular, the operating regime determines the material selection process because graphene crack-network films demonstrate exceptional sensitivity to sub-kPa pressures for micro-physiological pressure measurement but MXene composites and textiles maintain their linear behavior and structural stability during mid- to high-pressure applications with excellent durability. Furthermore, practical limits differ: MXene requires encapsulation to mitigate oxidation and long-term drift in humid or sweat-rich environments, while graphene's crack-mediated transduction can introduce hysteresis and baseline evolution over extended cycling. Finally, the last part introduces a decision framework which links application restrictions to mechanism–material pairings while demanding standardized reporting methods that must include sensitivity ranges and load protocols and hysteresis and durability statistics to improve comparison and translation capabilities. Therefore, these guidelines enable the rational selection and engineering of MXene/graphene sensors for health monitoring and human–machine interfaces and soft robotic touch applications.</p>","PeriodicalId":74786,"journal":{"name":"Sensors & diagnostics","volume":" 4","pages":" 455-487"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2026/sd/d5sd00223k?page=search","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147733017","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Wearable enzyme-free glucose sensor using a flexible sericin-based conductive bio-composite","authors":"Xiaorui Huang, Yi Li, Boxiang Yang, Yuxuan Wu, Zhuocheng Jiang, Jiuxi Sui, Siyi Xing, Xue Zhang, Hualin Lan, Hanyan Zou, Yuchan Zhang and Guangchao Zang","doi":"10.1039/D5SD00188A","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1039/D5SD00188A","url":null,"abstract":"<p >With over 500 million people affected by diabetes worldwide, there is an urgent need for painless, continuous glucose monitoring. However, current wearable sensors are limited by enzyme instability, mechanical rigidity, and poor correlation with blood glucose levels. Here, we present an eco-friendly flexible biosensor fabricated from silk sericin, an abundant cocoon by-product, crosslinked with dialdehyde HPMC and functionalized with AuNPs–AMWCNTs. This dual-crosslinking strategy integrates sericin's biocompatibility with the high conductivity and catalytic activity of the nanocomposite, yielding a robust sensing layer that withstands 200 folding cycles without performance loss. The sensor exhibits a low detection limit of 4 μM and a sensitivity of 13.43 μA mM<small>⁻¹</small> cm<small>⁻²</small> in the physiologically relevant 25–400 μM range. This work offers a sustainable and reliable platform for real-time, continuous, and noninvasive glucose monitoring, with significant potential for next-generation wearable health devices.</p>","PeriodicalId":74786,"journal":{"name":"Sensors & diagnostics","volume":" 4","pages":" 552-566"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2026/sd/d5sd00188a?page=search","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147733058","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Acid-activation enhanced graphite additive manufactured polypropylene sensor for the detection of parathion in forensic and environmental samples","authors":"Karen K. L. Augusto, Larissa M. A. Melo, Elena Bernalte, Robert D. Crapnell, Rodrigo A. A. Muñoz, Orlando Fatibello-Filho, Wallans T. P. dos Santos and Craig E. Banks","doi":"10.1039/D5SD00125K","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1039/D5SD00125K","url":null,"abstract":"<p >Parathion is a widely used pesticide that also acts as a hazardous toxicant, making its <em>in situ</em> detection crucial in both environmental and forensic contexts. As such, this study presents the development and application of a new additive manufactured electrodes composed of polypropylene (PP), carbon black (CB), and nitric acid-treated graphite (Gr(HNO<small>₃</small>)) for the electroanalytical detection of parathion. The physicochemical properties of the CB–Gr(HNO<small>₃</small>)/PP additive manufactured electrodes were thoroughly characterised using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Raman spectroscopy. Electrochemical characterisation revealed that introducing acid-treated graphite component significantly enhanced the electrode's electrochemical properties compared to untreated graphite electrodes. The electroanalytical performance of the CB–Gr(HNO<small>₃</small>)/PP electrode was subsequently assessed for the detection of parathion using adsorptive stripping square-wave voltammetry (SWAdSV), exhibiting a highly sensitive response, with a theoretical detection limit of 0.17 nM and a linear concentration range from 20 to 100 μM. The method demonstrated excellent reproducibility (RSD &lt; 4%) and selectivity, with minimal interference from common contaminants. Parathion detection was successfully validated in real samples, showing recovery values of 91.5% in river water, 105.5% in urine, 76.9% in saliva, 102.9% in vitreous humour, and 87.6% in serum. It is demonstrated that the proposed CB–Gr(HNO<small>₃</small>)/PP electrode provides an effective platform for parathion sensing, highlighting the potential of additive manufacturing in advancing real-world analytical applications for environmental and forensic monitoring.</p>","PeriodicalId":74786,"journal":{"name":"Sensors & diagnostics","volume":" 3","pages":" 381-392"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2026/sd/d5sd00125k?page=search","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147558609","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Controlling the signal through interfacial design in aptamer-based electrochemical sensors","authors":"Ashkan Koushanpour, Yara Raphael, Edward J. Harvey and Geraldine E. Merle","doi":"10.1039/D5SD00181A","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1039/D5SD00181A","url":null,"abstract":"<p >Electrochemical aptamer-based (E-AB) sensors represent a distinct class of biosensing platforms that convert target recognition events into faradaic signals through conformational changes at electrode interfaces. Unlike conventional chemical- or enzyme-dependent systems, E-AB sensors operate <em>via</em> purely physical transduction mechanisms, minimizing susceptibility to pH fluctuations, enzymatic degradation, or interfering side reactions. These attributes enable robust operation in complex physiological environments and have been demonstrated in clinically relevant contexts, including intraoperative cancer diagnostics. Nevertheless, broad implementation has been limited by challenges in interfacial chemistry, aptamer stability, electrode nanostructuring, and signal reproducibility. This review critically examines intrinsic factors governing E-AB performance, with emphasis on interfacial engineering, aptamer selection and modification, and nanostructured electrode architectures. Advances in molecular design and materials integration are highlighted, alongside emerging fabrication strategies that enhance sensitivity, dynamic range, and operational stability. By synthesizing recent progress and identifying persistent bottlenecks, this work outlines pathways toward realizing the clinical and technological potential of E-AB sensors.</p>","PeriodicalId":74786,"journal":{"name":"Sensors & diagnostics","volume":" 4","pages":" 522-533"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlepdf/2026/sd/d5sd00181a?page=search","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147733055","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}