Fire Safety Journal最新文献

{"title":"Evaluating the impact of testing conditions on intumescent coatings' fire performance: A comparison of laboratory-scale and industrial-scale experiments","authors":"Beril Oğuz ,&nbsp;Emil O.L. Olsson ,&nbsp;James Robson ,&nbsp;Kim Dam-Johansen ,&nbsp;Jochen A.H. Dreyer","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104367","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104367","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Steel is extensively utilized in construction but loses mechanical strength at elevated temperatures, posing a risk of structural failure during fires. Fire protection measures, such as intumescent coatings, are essential to ensure safe evacuation times. Regulatory standards necessitate fire testing of materials using defined fire curves in industrial furnaces, which are energy-intensive, costly, and time-consuming. To mitigate these issues, laboratory-scale (lab-scale) methods are employed to reduce costs and enhance efficiency. However, lab-scale tests, typically conducted on flat plate samples, may not accurately represent conditions in industrial furnaces. Therefore, it is imperative to systematically assess the discrepancies in intumescent coating performance between lab-scale and industrial-scale environments. This study aims to examine the influence of various testing conditions on the fire performance of intumescent coatings by comparing results from lab-scale and industrial-scale tests with two different fire scenarios, namely the hydrocarbon and cellulosic fire curves. It is shown that lab-scale flat plates closely resemble the exterior of H-columns and hollow structures. Additionally, a good agreement in expansion ratios between the exterior of H-column and hollow structures was achieved in the lab-scale tests. Replicating the thermal conditions and higher coating expansions inside the H-column web is however more challenging with flat plate lab-scale experiments.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104367"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143620401","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental study on the influence of layer number and initial ignition location on burning characteristic of multi-layer cable fire","authors":"Jie Chen ,&nbsp;Shengze Qin ,&nbsp;Xiaolong Zhao ,&nbsp;Yunhe Tong ,&nbsp;Minghao Fan","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104368","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104368","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A series of multi-layer cable fire tests were conducted to explore the effects of cable layer number and initial ignition location on the burning characteristics and propagation behavior. Characteristic parameters, such as flame morphological characteristics, flame spread behavior, temperature profile and heat release rate (HRR) were determined. Flame height and HRR was significantly increased with the increase of cable layer number. Within the current limited experimental range, maximum flame height and HRR of multi-layer cable fire scenario reached 640 cm and 1380 kW, respectively. Also, initial ignition location had obvious effect on multi-layer cable fire propagation pattern. In cable fire scenarios, flame spread exhibits upward, downward, and horizontal directions when ignition initiates at lower or upper layers. However, mid-layer ignition introduces a critical thermal melt droplet-driven propagation mechanism. Molten droplets are classified into four morphological types, and their accumulation may lead to pool-like fires. This work was performed to deepen our fundamental understanding of the combustion characteristics of large-scale multi-layer cable fires and provide some reference for related fire safety issues.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104368"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143620400","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Strategies for fire-fighting in underventilated compartments: Reducing the likelihood and severity of a potential backdraught","authors":"A.H. Majdalani ,&nbsp;R. Carvel ,&nbsp;I. Calderón ,&nbsp;W. Jahn","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104365","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104365","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Fires in underventilated compartments remain an unresolved problem for fire brigades. While some brigades have specific guidance in place regarding procedures for approaching and fighting such fires, this guidance is, for the most part, based on anecdotal evidence, having been instigated following historical incidents involving fire-fighter injuries or fatalities.</div><div>As fire-fighters open a door or window to an under-ventilated compartment fire, there is a risk of a sudden fire development that may come in the form of a rapid flare up or backdraught. A programme of reduced scale fire experiments was designed to obtain deeper insight into this phenomenon. The results of these experiments are presented showing the conditions under which changes in the ventilation conditions of an underventilated compartment were beneficial for firefighting activities and under which conditions this was detrimental.</div><div>This paper provides further scientific understanding of the fire dynamics in underventilated compartments when changes in ventilation conditions occur. The use of ventilation tactics, preceded by strict safety precautions and comprehensive tactical considerations, appears to be a practical solution that reduces the likelihood and severity of a potential backdraught. The results presented could be used to develop simple guidance, which may be used in fire brigade practice, to decide when and how to intervene in this kind of fires.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104365"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143563565","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Separation of heat transfer modes in fire: Review and analysis","authors":"Jonathan L. Hodges ,&nbsp;Jason E. Floyd ,&nbsp;Matthew J. DiDomizio","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104353","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104353","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The local heat transfer to a fire-exposed surface consists of radiative and convective components. Computational fluid dynamics fire models independently predict each of these heat transfer modes. However, experimental measurements of heat transfer are typically limited to measurements of the total heat transfer rather than the separation of individual components. As a result, it can be difficult to identify whether total heat transfer discrepancies between models and experiments are due to errors in convective and/or radiative heat transfer. Several different approaches have been presented over the years to separate the total measured heat transfer into its individual components. Each method comes with its own assumptions, limitations, and uncertainties.</div><div>This paper provides a review of the existing literature on this topic which is augmented with engineering analysis. Previous studies are summarized, the mathematical formulations in each method are presented, and the uncertainties associated with the assumptions are discussed. These results are then used to estimate the expanded uncertainty associated with each approach. Under ideal conditions, the uncertainty of the separated heat transfer modes are approximately 15% of the total heat flux. Under less ideal conditions this uncertainty is higher. General recommendations to reduce these uncertainties in future studies are provided.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104353"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143600930","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"CFD simulation of the BS 8414 test for cladding applications","authors":"Zhaozhi Wang,&nbsp;Fuchen Jia,&nbsp;Edwin R. Galea,&nbsp;John Ewer","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104366","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104366","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A numerical BS 8414 model has been developed using surface ignition temperature, cone calorimeter data and a heat release rate curve from a wood crib, for simulating cladding fires. The model predicts burning rates of combustible materials, temperature profiles, burn-through of materials, burning locations and activation states of functional intumescent cavity barriers. The model is validated using seven DCLG BS 8414 tests, by correctly reproducing pass/fail results and failure mechanisms; producing comparable fire flames and reasonable agreement of temperature profiles, which are essential to the pass/fail criteria; and producing reasonable burning/burnt locations for the cladding system. The model has also been used to investigate factors affecting fire spread including cavity size, state of fire barriers, reduction of core material mass by for example dripping and the consistency of the HRR behaviour of the wood crib fire source. The limitations of the BS 8414 model are discussed including the uncertainty of surface ignition temperature; the approach to the activation of intumescent cavity barriers; the uncertainties in HRRs of the wood crib fire and the material properties. To improve the repeatability of the BS 8414 test, it is suggested that a gas burner is used rather than a wood crib fire.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104366"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143509609","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Numerical investigation on the inhibition effect of HBr in stoichiometric hydrogen/air mixtures on head-on flame quenching (HoQ)","authors":"Chunkan Yu,&nbsp;Robert Schießl","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104354","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104354","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper investigates the effect of the flame retardant hydrogen bromide (HBr) on premixed hydrogen/air flames undergoing head-on quenching at an inert cold wall. Numerical simulations with full spatio-temporal resolution and detailed treatment of chemical reactions and molecular transport are employed to study this configuration. The simulations reveal how the addition of HBr affects the species profiles and the heat release rate in the flame, particularly at the quenching time, defined as the point of maximum heat loss to the wall. It is found that the accumulation of HO<span><math><msub><mrow></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msub></math></span> and H<span><math><msub><mrow></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msub></math></span>O<span><math><msub><mrow></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msub></math></span> at the wall, which is significant for pure hydrogen/oxygen flames, becomes much weaker in the presence of HBr. Instead, with HBr the near-wall accumulation of Br and Br<span><math><msub><mrow></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msub></math></span> becomes more pronounced. Further investigation shows that the recombination reaction <span><math><mrow><mtext>Br+Br+M</mtext><mo>→</mo><msub><mrow><mtext>Br</mtext></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msub><mo>+</mo><mtext>M</mtext></mrow></math></span> is the dominant exothermic reaction contributing to the heat release rate at the wall. Moreover, heat losses from the flame to the wall have been compared for different fuels. For stoichiometric H<span><math><msub><mrow></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msub></math></span> air, the wall heat loss (and therefore the thermal stress exerted onto the wall by the flame) is around two times higher than that for a conventional fuel like, e.g. methane. However, when 2% HBr are added to the combusting mixture, the heat loss is similar to methane. HBr addition can therefore efficiently reduce the thermal load for walls exposed to hydrogen combustion down to the levels of the conventional fuel CH<span><math><msub><mrow></mrow><mrow><mn>4</mn></mrow></msub></math></span>.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104354"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143471206","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Study on the suppression of hydrogen-air explosions by ultrafine water mist containing KCl, K2CO3, or NaCl","authors":"Xiangdi Zhao ,&nbsp;Jiangyue Zhao ,&nbsp;Xiaolong Zhu ,&nbsp;Wei Xu ,&nbsp;Guangwen Zhang ,&nbsp;Chun Wang ,&nbsp;Xishi Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104356","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104356","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Hydrogen explosions pose significant risks in industrial applications due to their highly reactive and flammable nature. While most existing studies have focused on water mist (WM) with additives to suppress deflagrations in hydrocarbon combustion, research on hydrogen explosions remains limited. This work aims to address these gaps by investigating the effects of different WM concentrations (600 g/m³-2400 g/m³), alkali metal salt additives (KCl, K₂CO₃, NaCl), and alkali metal salt concentrations (2.5%, 5%, and 7.5%) on hydrogen explosions across varying hydrogen concentrations (20%–40%) in a vented vessel. Key findings reveal that 5% KCl mist exhibits a better suppression efficiency. Increased mist concentration effectively reduces both flame propagation velocity and explosion pressure. When the hydrogen concentrations are 20% and 35%, with a 5% KCl mist concentration of 2400 g/m³, the maximum explosion overpressure decreased by 60.48% and 40.02% respectively, compared to no suppressant. The suppression mechanism was inferred to involve a combination of physical effects (heat absorption and dilution) and chemical interactions (formation of KOH). These results provide valuable insights into optimizing explosion suppression strategies for hydrogen explosions in the process industry.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104356"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143487646","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Strength of thin-walled steel beams under non-uniform temperature: Analytical and machine learning models","authors":"Carlos Couto ,&nbsp;Thomas Gernay","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104357","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104357","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The resistance of thin-walled steel beams in fire is governed by a complex interaction between the buckling of the plates and the lateral-torsional buckling (LTB) of the member, combined with the temperature-induced reduction of steel properties. Besides, in many applications, steel beams are subjected to non-uniform thermal exposure which creates temperature gradients in the section. There is a lack of analytical design methods to capture the effects of temperature gradients on the structural response, which leads to overly conservative assumptions thwarting optimization efforts. This paper describes a study on the strength of thin-walled steel beams subjected to constant bending moment in the major-axis and thermal gradients through analytical and Machine Learning (ML) methods. A parametric heat transfer analysis is conducted to characterize the thermal gradients that develop under three-sided fire exposure. Nonlinear finite element simulations with shells are then used to generate the resistance dataset. Results show that the use of the Eurocode model with a uniform temperature taken as the hot flange temperature severely underestimate the moment strength with an <span><math><mrow><msup><mi>R</mi><mn>2</mn></msup></mrow></math></span> of 0.61. The ML models, trained using physically defined features, are far superior to the Eurocode methods in predictive capacity. The ML-based models can be used to improve existing design methods for non-uniform temperature distributions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104357"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143478840","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Ship fire and explosion accident statistical analysis based on fault tree and Bayesian network","authors":"Wenling Guan,&nbsp;Chenxiang Zhang,&nbsp;Chengjie Dong,&nbsp;Yueshuang Xia","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104358","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104358","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>To identify the potential causal factors of ship fire and explosion (F&amp;E) accidents and develop effective prevention strategies, this study conducted a statistical analysis of 271 investigation reports on ship F&amp;E accidents and identified 46 basic events. By combining Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) and Bayesian Networks (BN), six key causal factors were recognized: fuel leakage, wooden structures, plastics and rubber, main engine hot surfaces, short circuits, and line faults. This study also revealed two main and two secondary accident paths. The two main accident paths are as follows: one is for fuel or lubricant leakage contact with high-temperature surfaces (e.g., main engine, exhaust system, and turbocharger) to start a fire; the other is for short circuits or line faults to ignite surrounding combustible materials (e.g., wooden structures, plastics, and rubber). Finally, this study proposes measures to prevent ship F&amp;E accidents in the following three aspects: strengthening the management of combustible materials, paying attention to ignition source control, and improving accident path monitoring.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104358"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143478841","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental study of the combined effects of CO2 and obstacles on the explosive behavior of syngas","authors":"Mingzhao Wang ,&nbsp;Xiaoping Wen ,&nbsp;Zhihan Yuan ,&nbsp;Haoxin Deng ,&nbsp;Jun Song ,&nbsp;Guoyan Chen ,&nbsp;Fahui Wang ,&nbsp;Rongkun Pan","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104355","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104355","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This article experimentally investigates the explosion behaviors of syngas, focusing on the combined effects of obstacles and CO₂ on flame front evolution, flame front velocity (FFV), overpressure, and maximum overpressure (P_max). Results demonstrate that CO₂ prolongs the flame propagation time, with increasing concentration delaying the onset time of the tulip flame (t_tulip). A secondary tulip phenomenon is observed at α(H₂) = 30 % and α(CO₂) = 20 %. For pipes with obstacles, increasing CO₂ concentration reduces the impact of the obstacles on flame propagation, slows the flame front velocity, and causes the flame front to exhibit different shapes after passing through the obstacle. As α(H₂) increases, the overpressure also rises substantially, with P_max increasing up to 3.74 times compared to the scenario without obstacles. When α(CO₂) reaches 15 %–20 %, the P_max without obstacles surpasses that with obstacles, suggesting that at higher α(CO₂), the obstacles have a minimal impact on the gas explosion, with α(CO₂) becoming the dominant factor.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104355"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143453308","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}