Fire Safety Journal最新文献

{"title":"Radiative properties of firefighter helmets: Effect of color and soot deposition on thermal performance","authors":"A. Collin ,&nbsp;Z. Acem ,&nbsp;M. Suzanne ,&nbsp;F. Testa ,&nbsp;G. Baulin","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104405","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104405","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the thermal radiative properties of firefighter helmets, focusing on the influence of helmet color and soot deposition on their performance. Firefighters’ helmets, often chrome plated for reflectivity or colored for functional visibility, play a critical role in protecting against radiant heat during operations. Through infrared spectrum measurements, this work analyzes the directional-hemispherical reflectivity and absorptivity of various helmets, assessing factors such as helmet color and surface conditions. Results indicate that chrome plated helmets reflect most of the radiative heat (average reflectivity of 83% at 1000 K) providing superior thermal protection. In contrast, colored helmets show reduced reflectivity, ranging from 3% to 14%, resulting in increased radiative absorption. Helmets, covered by soot and combustion products), demonstrate a reflectivity drop to approximately 36% for a chrome plated helmet, highlighting the importance of regular cleaning to maintain thermal protection. These findings advance the understanding of thermal performance differences among helmet types, contributing to improved firefighter safety and offering insights into future helmet design considerations. All experimental data collected in this study are available in an open-access database for further uses.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104405"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143903384","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Residual load-bearing capacity of large-scale prestressed concrete roof slabs after fire exposure","authors":"Chuanguo Fu ,&nbsp;Yunxing Wang ,&nbsp;Guoxi He ,&nbsp;Gaojian Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104407","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104407","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;div&gt;&lt;div&gt;Large-scale prestressed concrete (PC) roof-slabs are fundamental structural components extensively used in industrial construction. These slabs have large spans and thin profiles, rendering them susceptible to substantial degradation in load-bearing capacity when exposed to high-temperature fires. Currently, there is a lack of experimental research data on the performance deterioration of such large-scale slabs under high-temperature fire conditions. This highlights the significance of conducting experimental investigations into the fire resistance properties of large-scale PC slabs from theoretical and practical perspectives. In this study, 11 large-scale PC slab specimens were manufactured, with three slabs designated as reference specimens for comparison at ambient temperature. Leveraging a large-scale fire simulation test system, the remaining eight PC slabs were subjected to post-fire residual load-bearing performance tests, considering variations in fire exposure duration and cooling methods. The temperature field distribution during the heating and cooling processes, the deflection deformation characteristics, and the crack distribution patterns after cooling of the PC slabs were observed and analyzed. Furthermore, a comparative analysis was conducted to assess the impact of different fire exposure durations and cooling methods on the degradation of the overall load-bearing performance of slabs. Post-fire static loading tests showed that the slabs retained good overall load-bearing performance after fire exposure. The slabs exhibited the structural characteristics of integrated slab and rib behavior, with the primary rib remaining the key load-bearing component. The overall load-bearing capacity of the slabs after a fire primarily depends on the residual load-bearing capacity of the primary and secondary ribs. Compared to slabs under ambient conditions, the overall flexural stiffness and ultimate load-bearing capacity of the fire-exposed slabs showed varying degrees of reduction. The slabs subjected to natural cooling after different fire exposure durations (30, 45, 60 and 75 min) experienced reductions in ultimate load-bearing capacity by 1.5, 2.3, 4.4, and 15 %, respectively, compared to ambient-condition slabs. For slabs cooled with water, the reductions were 2.8, 6.0, 7.4, and 12.4 %, respectively. The flexural stiffness of slabs cooled naturally after fire exposure was lower than that of slabs cooled with water. The experimental results indicated that large-scale PC slabs exposed to fire for equivalent standard heating times of 24, 39, and 50 min experienced less than 8 % reduction in overall post-fire load-bearing capacity. Therefore, from a load-bearing capacity perspective, large-scale slabs of this type exposed to standard heating for up to 50 min still maintain good load-bearing performance. The findings of this study provide valuable reference data for fire-resistant design, post-fire assessment, and reinforcement of l","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104407"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-04-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143899645","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"CFD analysis of performance-based explosion protection design for battery energy storage systems (BESS)","authors":"Damilare Olugbemide ,&nbsp;Noah Ryder","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104406","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104406","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;div&gt;&lt;div&gt;This study evaluates three explosion protection designs for a Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) unit as part of a Hazard Mitigation Analysis (HMA). This is done in accordance with the requirements for explosion protection in NFPA 855, &lt;em&gt;Standard for the Installation of Stationary Energy Storage Systems&lt;/em&gt;. The BESS unit is a lithium-ion-based stationary energy storage system with nominal internal dimensions of 3.1 m (L) x 2.1 m (W) x 2.4 m (H) and a free air volume of 6.1 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;. It has four racks composed of eight modules each. Two commercially available cells—EVE and CATL—are used in the analysis to highlight the differences between cell compositions and the implications for explosion pressure and flame propagation. The analysis is performed using the FLACS (Flame Acceleration Simulator) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) tool developed by Gexcon.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;The three designs considered are natural ventilation, combustible concentration reduction, and standard deflagration venting. For the natural ventilation method, the installed ventilation panel is designed to open at 60&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; (to the horizontal plane) on activation by a gas sensor located in the BESS unit. The sensor triggers the ventilation panel actuator when the concentration of the released gas inside the unit has reached a pre-determined level. The analysis determines whether the natural ventilation provided by the vent opening is sufficient to maintain the gas concentration within the unit at or below 25 % of the lower flammability limit (LFL), thereby preventing an explosion in the unit. The combustible concentration reduction method is one of the standard methods of deflagration prevention for equipment handling combustible materials discussed in NFPA 69, &lt;em&gt;Standard on Explosion Prevention System&lt;/em&gt;. NFPA 69 requires that the mechanical ventilation provided for the unit should be sufficient to maintain the gas concentration within it at or below 25 % of the LFL. The third and final design is standard deflagration venting as specified in NFPA 68, &lt;em&gt;Standard Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting&lt;/em&gt;. A single vent panel is provided to relieve explosion pressure in the unit. It is designed to activate at a static pressure (P&lt;sub&gt;stat&lt;/sub&gt;) of 0.05 bar-g. The analysis determines whether the vent size is adequate to safely vent the unit and prevent its structural failure in the event of a deflagration. Results of large-scale testing show that for typical BESS units, panels, fasteners, and other components may begin to fail at about 0.07–0.14 bar-g. Thus, this pressure range is used as the performance criterion for this analysis.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;The results of this analysis show that the second design option (the combustible concentration reduction method) provides the best outcome for explosion protection of the BESS unit. The other designs provide modest degrees of pressure relief, depending on several factors. Consequently, these design approaches ","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104406"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-04-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143902295","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Nonlinear impacts of fuel load on rate of spread and residence time in forest surface fires","authors":"Haiyan Wang,&nbsp;Junzhao Zhang,&nbsp;Cheng Fan,&nbsp;Hongbin Zhong,&nbsp;Lei Chen,&nbsp;Sixuan Huang,&nbsp;Mengen Zhao","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104404","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104404","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Frequent and extreme forest fires not only damage the environment but also pose a serious threat to firefighting personnel. Understanding the rate of spread (ROS) is crucial for developing effective firefighting strategies. Surface fuel load serves as the foundation for forest combustion, yet its effect on the ROS of surface fires remains contentious. To investigate the impact of fuel load on surface fire ROS, this study uses pine needles as the fuel material, simulating the accumulation of surface combustibles in forests by increasing fuel load, while also examining fuel depth and packing ratio under each load condition. Using an experimental system capable of measuring the ROS at multiple points along the fire line, we evaluated the ROS of surface fires within a fuel load range of 0.4–3.0 kg/m². The effects of packing ratio and fuel depth on ROS under different load conditions were discussed, and the influence of fuel load on fire line residence time was also explored. The results indicate that increasing fuel load leads to higher packing ratios and greater fuel bed depth due to the compressibility and weight of the pine needles. Within the studied load range, ROS does not follow a simple linear trend; instead, it initially rises, then decreases, and finally shows a slow increase. This non-linear behavior arises from the combined, and at times opposing, effects of packing ratio and fuel depth on ROS. Additionally, as fuel load increases, the residence time of the fire line follows a pattern of slow increase, sharp rise, and gradual further increase. The growth in flame depth, driven by higher fuel loads, ultimately becomes the dominant factor in prolonging the residence time. These findings provide valuable experimental data to enhance the understanding of forest surface fire dynamics and fuel load effects.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104404"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-04-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143874182","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Environmental impact of sprinklers and gravity smoke vents interaction — Review and probabilistic modelling approach","authors":"Wojciech Kowalski,&nbsp;Adam Krasuski,&nbsp;Wioletta Rogula-Kozłowska","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104386","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104386","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In the event of a fire in a typical industrial building, the systems deployed first are sprinklers and gravity smoke vents. Scientists and experts have not reached a firm consensus on the advantages or disadvantages of using sprinklers and gravity smoke vents together. While life-safety and property protection aspects have been already investigated, the environmental impact of these interactions has not yet been considered in research. This study identified and meticulously analysed several environmental issues related to the cooperation of these FPSs. A probabilistic model was then developed to efficiently assess emissions of selected pollutants from fires. The focus was on priority pollutants in terms of climate, toxicity and carcinogenicity. Various cost-optimization and monetization techniques were assessed to propose an appropriate method for evaluating the environmental impact of FPSs. A generic warehouse case study was conducted, comparing 24 different storage and FPS configurations. The applicability of the proposed approach was confirmed; however, the case study results indicates that the interference between sprinklers and gravity smoke vents is relatively insignificant compared to other factors. Additionally, four configurations of sprinklers and vents application were analysed. Sprinklers only have the lowest impact on environment for generic warehouse.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"154 ","pages":"Article 104386"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-04-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143867690","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Influence of laps on the behaviour of a composite slab under membrane action in fire","authors":"Moe Horie ,&nbsp;Takeo Hirashima ,&nbsp;Haruka Kanada ,&nbsp;Yusuke Shintani ,&nbsp;Kei Kimura","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104401","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104401","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Membrane action increases the load-bearing capacity of a two-way slab due to increased deflection. The composite slab must transfer enough tensile forces at the laps of reinforcements to ensure adequate load-bearing capacity under membrane action. This study conducted load-bearing fire tests on a large-scale floor system consisting of steel beams and a composite slab with welded wire mesh of guaranteed welded point strength in order to investigate the transfer of tensile forces within the laps under the membrane action. The lap length of meshes was the wire spacing plus 50 mm (150 mm), shorter than the 250 mm specified by 1992-1-1. Two specimens were subjected to loads that were tested with either 2 or 2.67 times the predicted load based on yield line theory. The floor system of the test specimens resisted the load not only during the 216-min heating phase but also during the cooling phase, despite experiencing the integrity failure. The temperature of the welded wire mesh exceeded 600 °C, and the maximum vertical deflection was 1/11 of the short span. The wires outside the lap failed, and the laps transferred sufficient tensile forces until the wires yielded. Therefore, the lap length of the wire spacing plus 50 mm (150 mm) was adequate for transferring tensile forces. The test results indicated that the load-bearing capacity of the floor system based on ECCS was conservative, considering the strength degradation of the welded wire mesh at high temperatures.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"154 ","pages":"Article 104401"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-04-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143859485","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The performance of hot-dip galvanized composite beams made of high and higher strength steel in standard fire resistance tests","authors":"Maria-Mirabela Firan ,&nbsp;Justus Frenz ,&nbsp;Jie Li ,&nbsp;Annika Kapfhammer ,&nbsp;Luke Bisby ,&nbsp;Jochen Zehfuß ,&nbsp;Martin Mensinger","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104400","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104400","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The lower emissivity of hot-dip galvanized steel sections as compared with non-galvanized steel, particularly at temperatures below 500 °C, results in slower heating when exposed to fire, thus enabling fire resistance ratings of R30 for compact cross-sections without additional passive fire protection. Using galvanized high and higher-strength steels allows R30 fire resistance to be achieved in composite beams more efficiently and cost-effectively. These ideas are investigated experimentally and via numerical analyses in this paper.</div><div>Large-scale standard fire resistance tests are presented to evaluate the performance of hot-dip galvanized composite beams under thermal and mechanical loads. The tests include a variety of beam geometries and depths, using steel grades S460M and S690QL. Single-symmetrical beams were designed with a reduced top flange thicknesses and compact bottom flanges to optimize overall depth and improve thermal response during fire testing. The temperature-dependent material properties of the S460M and S690QL steels is characterised, including steady state and transient tensile tests on both steels, and the results are compared with those given in DIN EN 1993-1-2. Hot-dip galvanized secondary beams with different connection types were connected in the middle of the beams during the large scale fire resistance tests so as to investigate temperatures experienced by differing connection details. The collected test data are used to validate and verify finite element models for such composite beams when exposed to standard fire exposures, alongside further parametric studies examining elements such as cross sectional geometry of the composite beam, the degree of shear connection, and the overall length of the beams. The outcomes of these studies contribute to the determination of the minimum required degree of stud shear connection for hot-dip galvanized composite beams in standard fire scenarios.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"154 ","pages":"Article 104400"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-04-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143863452","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Lateral flame spread over thermally thin Fuels: Theoretical prediction of spread rate and experimental validation with PMMA and cellulosic fuels","authors":"Subrata Bhattacharjee,&nbsp;Felix Panzer,&nbsp;Simon Zielke","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104389","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104389","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Flame spread over solid fuel is a fundamental problem in fire safety science. Although it has been studied in different orientations – downward, upward, horizontal, and lateral– closed-form formulas for predicting the flame spread rate were first proposed for the opposed-flow configuration and experimentally verified in downward configuration, a special case of opposed-flow flame spread. In this work we present a simplified theory to predict the flame spread rate when a vertical flame spreads sideways (laterally) on both sides (symmetrically) of a thermally thin sample held horizontally in a quiescent normal-gravity environment. The ratio of flame spread rates between the lateral and downward orientations are shown to depend only on the flame coefficient, a non-dimensional known temperature ratio, and the Prandtl number. Experiments are performed in both downward and lateral configurations with a series of PMMA (Poly-methyl metacrylate) samples with fuel thickness ranging from 400 through 1500 μm and width from 10 through 60 mm as parameters. Similar experiments are also performed with ashless filter paper. The spread rate ratio between the two configurations is compared to the theoretical prediction with reasonable agreement. As predicted by the theory, the spread rate ratio is found to be independent of fuel thickness and fuel width for laminar flame spread.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"154 ","pages":"Article 104389"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-04-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143863451","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Hybrid fire testing of concrete-filled steel tube columns: A large-scale experimental and numerical investigation","authors":"Majid Hamidi ,&nbsp;Masoud Adelzadeh ,&nbsp;Hamzeh Hajiloo","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104402","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104402","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Hybrid Fire Testing (HFT) integrates experimental fire testing with numerical simulations to better capture the interaction between a physical sample in a furnace fire and the structure that would surround it in real-world conditions. Unlike traditional fire testing, HFT enables a more accurate analysis of complex structural behaviours by simulating the effect of adjacent structural elements, thus providing a realistic assessment of a structure's fire performance. This paper presents a full-scale experimental hybrid fire test of a concrete-filled steel tube (CFST) column using an advanced HFT framework developed in previous research. A three-story, four-bay structure with the steel moment-resisting frame was selected for the validation. One column of the structure was physically represented in the laboratory, while the remainder of the structure was modelled numerically through finite element software. The physical specimen was heated following a standard fire curve. The experimental results are compared with numerical predictions and fire resistance tests of a similar single column to validate the performance of the developed method in full-scale applications. This comparison also provides insight into the performance of the column when acting as part of the larger structural system. The test results confirmed the proposed method can accurately simulate the complicated behaviour of a CFST column at high temperatures and subsequent failure.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"154 ","pages":"Article 104402"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-04-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143843377","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Susceptibility to ignition of landscaping mulches exposed to firebrand piles or radiation","authors":"Shaorun Lin ,&nbsp;Wuquan Cui ,&nbsp;Siyan Wang ,&nbsp;Yunzhu Qin ,&nbsp;Yuying Chen ,&nbsp;Yichao Zhang ,&nbsp;Xinyan Huang ,&nbsp;Stephen L. Quarles ,&nbsp;Michael J. Gollner","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104388","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104388","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Mulch products are widely used in landscaping at the wildland-urban interface (WUI), but burning mulch poses a significant ignition hazard to nearby structures. This study evaluates the ignition susceptibility of 10 mulches used in California, USA, exposed to smoldering firebrand piles or irradiation. The mulches included composted types, where products are piled and partially decomposed (bioretention, cal trans, marin vineyard, topper mulch, screened compost) and non-composted types (forest floor, redwood, black mulch, fir bark A and B). We found that all mulches except screened compost can be ignited to smolder by firebrand piles, with ignition more likely at higher firebrand mass and wind speeds. Following spotting ignition, non-composted mulches were more prone to transition from smoldering to flaming at critical wind speeds, which varied by mulch type. For piloted ignition, all mulches can sustain flames under irradiation, with non-composted mulches generally requiring lower critical heat fluxes due to the emission of more combustible gases. Particle size significantly influenced ignition thresholds, with smaller particles facilitating piloted flaming ignition and larger particles being more susceptible to spotting ignition and smoldering-to-flaming transition. This work deepens our understanding of ignition and burning behaviors of mulch, helping improve the prevention and suppression strategies against catastrophic WUI fires.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"154 ","pages":"Article 104388"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-04-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143850494","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}