Fire Safety Journal最新文献

{"title":"Development of real-scale transformer fire test technology and evaluation of a solid aerosol-based fire suppression system","authors":"Jong-Geon Lee ,&nbsp;Hyun-Ho Choi","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104376","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104376","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Transformer fires pose significant risks to both infrastructure and human safety, and various technologies have been researched to mitigate these hazards. However, research on real-scale transformer fires remains limited due to a lack of failure data and the complexity of accurately simulating such fires. In this study, real-scale transformer fire simulation technology was further developed, and solid aerosol-based fire suppression systems were evaluated. The analysis included identifying the sources of transformer fires, studying their propagation patterns, and categorizing fire types. A testbed was constructed to simulate various fire conditions using the investigation results and a real-scale 154 kV transformer. The testbed was designed to simulate different types of transformer fires, including bushing, top, bottom, and wall fires, closely imposing real-case scenarios. Utilizing the constructed facility, fire scenarios caused by bushing insulation breakdowns were simulated, and the size of the fire source was analyzed to replicate actual fire conditions as accurately as possible. Additionally, the performance of the environmentally friendly and efficient solid aerosol-based fire suppression system was evaluated. The results demonstrated that, unlike conventional fire suppression methods, the solid aerosol system could effectively suppress transformer fires in partially opened environment with 3.2 % of opening ratio, successfully extinguishing the fire within approximately 2 min after ignition.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104376"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143643175","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Characteristics of triacetone triperoxide (TATP) formed in 2-propanol","authors":"Geir P. Novik ,&nbsp;Marianne Bolsønes ,&nbsp;Ragnhild Ueland ,&nbsp;Dennis Christensen","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104370","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104370","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>There have been several reports of explosions occurring as a result of handling aged 2-propanol. Several of these explosions have resulted in injuries. In some of these incidents, the formation of an explosive substance most commonly named TATP (triacetone triperoxide; 3,3,6,6,9,9-hexamethyl-1,2,4,5,7,8-hexoxonane) has been identified. Upon standing in the presence of air, it is known that 2-propanol under certain circumstances is inclined to form TATP; however, few studies have been carried out to determine its properties. Following a recent explosion in Norway involving 2-propanol, a noticeably large amount of a substance with a crystalline structure was discovered at the site of the accident. This substance was identified as TATP. The substance was analysed using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS), and its sensitivity to friction was studied using the standardised BAM friction test. The study shows that TATP can be formed naturally in 2-propanol in the presence of air, and that its characteristics are similar to that of the traditionally laboratory synthesised substance. This implies that handling ageing 2-propanol containers could be associated with severe danger, as TATP formed in 2-propanol is found to be highly sensitive to external stimuli.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104370"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143636650","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Charring design model for light timber frame assemblies with load-bearing I-joists","authors":"Katrin Nele Mäger ,&nbsp;Alar Just","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104369","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104369","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>As factory-manufactured, ultra-light and highly optimised products for load-bearing frame structures, wooden I-joists provide an extended range of applications for light timber frame assemblies. The fire resistance of such wooden structural products may be the deciding factor limiting their wider use. Moreover, the current European design standard for timber structures in fire does not include guidance for I-joists.</div><div>The development of charring coefficients is based on six model-scale furnace fire tests and an extensive series of thermal simulations. The results of fire tests and finite element simulations were compared. Thermal simulations were on the safe side.</div><div>The charred cross-section areas obtained from thermal simulations were analysed. Charring coefficients were developed in accordance with the current draft of FprEN 1995-1-2. The charring coefficients were developed so that their combination would capture the simulation results as accurately as possible, therefore creating a conservative result compared to furnace tests.</div><div>The charring coefficients proposed within this paper were validated against the model-scale fire tests. The new set of coefficients appropriately captures the available test data.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104369"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143620398","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Fire response of steel frames retrofitted against progressive collapse","authors":"Luca Possidente ,&nbsp;Fabio Freddi ,&nbsp;Nicola Tondini","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104371","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104371","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A large share of the existing building stock was built before the implementation of design standards against progressive collapse and is in need for retrofitting. Retrofit measures are typically designed with a threat-independent approach, involving the removal of one or more structural elements. This approach has been widely applied to deal with events such as impacts or blasts (short-duration events), but may not be adequate for fire scenarios (long-duration events) due to peculiar phenomena such as restrained thermal expansion and degradation of mechanical properties. This is particularly relevant for steel structures, which are sensitive to thermal attack and are typically designed as low-redundant systems, and used in large industrial or strategic buildings. This paper investigates the fire response of a 9-storey steel moment-resisting frame before and after progressive collapse retrofitting. Three retrofit measures designed considering the removal of the central ground storey column are investigated, including a bracing system, a roof-truss, and the concrete encasement of critical columns. Parametric fires, different compartment scenarios, and various loading levels are considered. The retrofit measures are shown to improve the fire response of the structure by preventing or delaying collapse. Finally, the effectiveness and suitability of the measures in different circumstances are discussed.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104371"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143620399","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evaluating the impact of testing conditions on intumescent coatings' fire performance: A comparison of laboratory-scale and industrial-scale experiments","authors":"Beril Oğuz ,&nbsp;Emil O.L. Olsson ,&nbsp;James Robson ,&nbsp;Kim Dam-Johansen ,&nbsp;Jochen A.H. Dreyer","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104367","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104367","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Steel is extensively utilized in construction but loses mechanical strength at elevated temperatures, posing a risk of structural failure during fires. Fire protection measures, such as intumescent coatings, are essential to ensure safe evacuation times. Regulatory standards necessitate fire testing of materials using defined fire curves in industrial furnaces, which are energy-intensive, costly, and time-consuming. To mitigate these issues, laboratory-scale (lab-scale) methods are employed to reduce costs and enhance efficiency. However, lab-scale tests, typically conducted on flat plate samples, may not accurately represent conditions in industrial furnaces. Therefore, it is imperative to systematically assess the discrepancies in intumescent coating performance between lab-scale and industrial-scale environments. This study aims to examine the influence of various testing conditions on the fire performance of intumescent coatings by comparing results from lab-scale and industrial-scale tests with two different fire scenarios, namely the hydrocarbon and cellulosic fire curves. It is shown that lab-scale flat plates closely resemble the exterior of H-columns and hollow structures. Additionally, a good agreement in expansion ratios between the exterior of H-column and hollow structures was achieved in the lab-scale tests. Replicating the thermal conditions and higher coating expansions inside the H-column web is however more challenging with flat plate lab-scale experiments.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104367"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143620401","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental study on the influence of layer number and initial ignition location on burning characteristic of multi-layer cable fire","authors":"Jie Chen ,&nbsp;Shengze Qin ,&nbsp;Xiaolong Zhao ,&nbsp;Yunhe Tong ,&nbsp;Minghao Fan","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104368","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104368","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A series of multi-layer cable fire tests were conducted to explore the effects of cable layer number and initial ignition location on the burning characteristics and propagation behavior. Characteristic parameters, such as flame morphological characteristics, flame spread behavior, temperature profile and heat release rate (HRR) were determined. Flame height and HRR was significantly increased with the increase of cable layer number. Within the current limited experimental range, maximum flame height and HRR of multi-layer cable fire scenario reached 640 cm and 1380 kW, respectively. Also, initial ignition location had obvious effect on multi-layer cable fire propagation pattern. In cable fire scenarios, flame spread exhibits upward, downward, and horizontal directions when ignition initiates at lower or upper layers. However, mid-layer ignition introduces a critical thermal melt droplet-driven propagation mechanism. Molten droplets are classified into four morphological types, and their accumulation may lead to pool-like fires. This work was performed to deepen our fundamental understanding of the combustion characteristics of large-scale multi-layer cable fires and provide some reference for related fire safety issues.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104368"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143620400","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Strategies for fire-fighting in underventilated compartments: Reducing the likelihood and severity of a potential backdraught","authors":"A.H. Majdalani ,&nbsp;R. Carvel ,&nbsp;I. Calderón ,&nbsp;W. Jahn","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104365","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104365","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Fires in underventilated compartments remain an unresolved problem for fire brigades. While some brigades have specific guidance in place regarding procedures for approaching and fighting such fires, this guidance is, for the most part, based on anecdotal evidence, having been instigated following historical incidents involving fire-fighter injuries or fatalities.</div><div>As fire-fighters open a door or window to an under-ventilated compartment fire, there is a risk of a sudden fire development that may come in the form of a rapid flare up or backdraught. A programme of reduced scale fire experiments was designed to obtain deeper insight into this phenomenon. The results of these experiments are presented showing the conditions under which changes in the ventilation conditions of an underventilated compartment were beneficial for firefighting activities and under which conditions this was detrimental.</div><div>This paper provides further scientific understanding of the fire dynamics in underventilated compartments when changes in ventilation conditions occur. The use of ventilation tactics, preceded by strict safety precautions and comprehensive tactical considerations, appears to be a practical solution that reduces the likelihood and severity of a potential backdraught. The results presented could be used to develop simple guidance, which may be used in fire brigade practice, to decide when and how to intervene in this kind of fires.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104365"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-03-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143563565","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Separation of heat transfer modes in fire: Review and analysis","authors":"Jonathan L. Hodges ,&nbsp;Jason E. Floyd ,&nbsp;Matthew J. DiDomizio","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104353","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104353","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The local heat transfer to a fire-exposed surface consists of radiative and convective components. Computational fluid dynamics fire models independently predict each of these heat transfer modes. However, experimental measurements of heat transfer are typically limited to measurements of the total heat transfer rather than the separation of individual components. As a result, it can be difficult to identify whether total heat transfer discrepancies between models and experiments are due to errors in convective and/or radiative heat transfer. Several different approaches have been presented over the years to separate the total measured heat transfer into its individual components. Each method comes with its own assumptions, limitations, and uncertainties.</div><div>This paper provides a review of the existing literature on this topic which is augmented with engineering analysis. Previous studies are summarized, the mathematical formulations in each method are presented, and the uncertainties associated with the assumptions are discussed. These results are then used to estimate the expanded uncertainty associated with each approach. Under ideal conditions, the uncertainty of the separated heat transfer modes are approximately 15% of the total heat flux. Under less ideal conditions this uncertainty is higher. General recommendations to reduce these uncertainties in future studies are provided.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104353"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143600930","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"CFD simulation of the BS 8414 test for cladding applications","authors":"Zhaozhi Wang,&nbsp;Fuchen Jia,&nbsp;Edwin R. Galea,&nbsp;John Ewer","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104366","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104366","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A numerical BS 8414 model has been developed using surface ignition temperature, cone calorimeter data and a heat release rate curve from a wood crib, for simulating cladding fires. The model predicts burning rates of combustible materials, temperature profiles, burn-through of materials, burning locations and activation states of functional intumescent cavity barriers. The model is validated using seven DCLG BS 8414 tests, by correctly reproducing pass/fail results and failure mechanisms; producing comparable fire flames and reasonable agreement of temperature profiles, which are essential to the pass/fail criteria; and producing reasonable burning/burnt locations for the cladding system. The model has also been used to investigate factors affecting fire spread including cavity size, state of fire barriers, reduction of core material mass by for example dripping and the consistency of the HRR behaviour of the wood crib fire source. The limitations of the BS 8414 model are discussed including the uncertainty of surface ignition temperature; the approach to the activation of intumescent cavity barriers; the uncertainties in HRRs of the wood crib fire and the material properties. To improve the repeatability of the BS 8414 test, it is suggested that a gas burner is used rather than a wood crib fire.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104366"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143509609","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Numerical investigation on the inhibition effect of HBr in stoichiometric hydrogen/air mixtures on head-on flame quenching (HoQ)","authors":"Chunkan Yu,&nbsp;Robert Schießl","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104354","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104354","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper investigates the effect of the flame retardant hydrogen bromide (HBr) on premixed hydrogen/air flames undergoing head-on quenching at an inert cold wall. Numerical simulations with full spatio-temporal resolution and detailed treatment of chemical reactions and molecular transport are employed to study this configuration. The simulations reveal how the addition of HBr affects the species profiles and the heat release rate in the flame, particularly at the quenching time, defined as the point of maximum heat loss to the wall. It is found that the accumulation of HO<span><math><msub><mrow></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msub></math></span> and H<span><math><msub><mrow></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msub></math></span>O<span><math><msub><mrow></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msub></math></span> at the wall, which is significant for pure hydrogen/oxygen flames, becomes much weaker in the presence of HBr. Instead, with HBr the near-wall accumulation of Br and Br<span><math><msub><mrow></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msub></math></span> becomes more pronounced. Further investigation shows that the recombination reaction <span><math><mrow><mtext>Br+Br+M</mtext><mo>→</mo><msub><mrow><mtext>Br</mtext></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msub><mo>+</mo><mtext>M</mtext></mrow></math></span> is the dominant exothermic reaction contributing to the heat release rate at the wall. Moreover, heat losses from the flame to the wall have been compared for different fuels. For stoichiometric H<span><math><msub><mrow></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn></mrow></msub></math></span> air, the wall heat loss (and therefore the thermal stress exerted onto the wall by the flame) is around two times higher than that for a conventional fuel like, e.g. methane. However, when 2% HBr are added to the combusting mixture, the heat loss is similar to methane. HBr addition can therefore efficiently reduce the thermal load for walls exposed to hydrogen combustion down to the levels of the conventional fuel CH<span><math><msub><mrow></mrow><mrow><mn>4</mn></mrow></msub></math></span>.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"153 ","pages":"Article 104354"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-02-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143471206","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}