Fire Safety Journal最新文献

{"title":"Effect of fire propagation modelling on structural elements temperature of steel racks","authors":"Margherita Autiero,&nbsp;Donatella de Silva,&nbsp;Emidio Nigro","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104412","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104412","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Automated Rack-Supported Warehouses (ARSWs) are a particular type of steel racks that combine the structural efficiency of steel construction with automated machines for handling stored products.</div><div>This work addressed the fire development in ARSW, by investigating the fire modelling which can be used in a multi-depth ARSW structure, by adopting zone models, and Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) ones. Since the traveling fire plays a key role in these peculiar structures, a simplified “multi-cells” fire model that allows vertical and horizontal propagation, is proposed.</div><div>Starting from the results of an extensive experimental campaign, available in the literature, conducted on steel racks, criteria to evaluate the vertical and horizontal propagation times are provided. Finally, the criteria of the simplified fire model were also compared with the results of advanced CFD analyses, in which the traveling fire was naturally considered, showing a good agreement. This proposed “multi-cells” zone model provides a useful tool for both design and assessment of the fire behaviour of ARSW structures.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104412"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144070011","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental and numerical investigation of Flame–Structure interaction under NexGen burner-induced horizontal jet fires","authors":"Zhou Jinggang ,&nbsp;Cong Beihua ,&nbsp;Zhou Xuanyi ,&nbsp;Wang Yiran ,&nbsp;Wang Wei","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104411","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104411","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Standard fire testing, mandatory in the aviation industry, employ new-generation NexGen burners to accurately control fuel and air flow during testing to meet airworthiness standards. In actual fire incidents, jet diffusion flames often strike structures, causing flame impingement. In such cases, the presence of structural elements, including their position, size, shape, and other characteristics, influences flame behaviour, which subsequently affects the thermal and mechanical responses of these elements. However, the characteristics of this flame‒structure interaction remain largely unexplored. Thus, this paper presents experimental and numerical simulation studies on the horizontal impingement of a standard flame generated by NexGen burners against a vertical steel plate. In the simulations, fluid-thermal-solid coupling is achieved through direct coupling approach (full conjugate heat transfer method, FCHT method), with its accuracy verified by comparing steel plate temperature results with experimental data. Simulation analyses across various cases (different steel plate positions and sizes) reveal that changes in the steel plate positions or sizes affect flame morphology and airflow dynamics, which, in turn, impact the thermal response of the structure. For instance, when the distance between the burner and the steel plate (<span><math><mrow><msub><mi>D</mi><mrow><mi>b</mi><mo>−</mo><mi>p</mi></mrow></msub></mrow></math></span>) is 70 mm, the mutual interaction between different vortices, involving both extrusion and repulsion, drives high-temperature combustion gases to flow outward along the narrow channel of the cone surface, resulting in a slightly lower temperature at the central area of the steel plate compared to its surrounding area. In contrast, when <span><math><mrow><msub><mi>D</mi><mrow><mi>b</mi><mo>−</mo><mi>p</mi></mrow></msub></mrow></math></span> is 100 mm, a portion of the high-temperature flow reverses direction upon striking the steel plate, forming a clockwise vortex and then ascending, which elevates the temperature in the upper central region of the steel plate. Subsequently, a structural analysis is conducted using the solid temperature as a boundary condition. Solid thermal-mechanical coupling is achieved, and the degradation of yield strength due to heating is investigated. The results indicate that as the distance <span><math><mrow><msub><mi>D</mi><mrow><mi>b</mi><mo>−</mo><mi>p</mi></mrow></msub></mrow></math></span> decreases, mechanical deformation increases, primarily attributable to the reduction in yield strength caused by elevated temperatures.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104411"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143942377","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Reporting of fire deaths or serious incidents in the UK where emollients are recorded to be a contributing factor","authors":"Roisin McDermott ,&nbsp;Christopher Bell ,&nbsp;Jo Morrissey ,&nbsp;George Shajan ,&nbsp;Sarah Hall","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104410","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104410","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The UK Medicine and Healthcare products Regulatory Agency (MHRA) recorded 53 deaths between 2010 and 2018 in fires where the involvement of emollient contaminated fabrics was reported. However, such incidents are widely accepted to be underreported, with problems in awareness and understanding of the increased fire risk resulting from emollient contamination. Therefore, a Freedom of Information (FOI) request was used to evaluate reporting by UK Fire and Rescue Services (FRS). 47 out of 52 responded, with 23 having no fire deaths or serious incidents where the use of emollients was documented. From 2015 to 2022, 78 deaths and 6 serious incidents were detailed in 24 responses, this was double per year than recorded previously. This may indicate improvements in awareness and therefore reporting of emollient use between 2018 and 2022. Comparison with government fire statistics indicate the possibility of 22 % of fire deaths in GB involving clothing/textile containing emollient residue as the item first ignited. Results indicate a major problem with documenting such incidents with only 3 of the 84 entered on the UK MHRA yellow card scheme. The results highlight the serious fire risk associated with emollients and the need for improved prevention advice and awareness.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104410"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144070002","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Modelling the thermal response of steelwork penetrating a fire-rated compartment wall","authors":"Edwin Ayala ,&nbsp;Mark Davison ,&nbsp;Cristian Maluk","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104414","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104414","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Steelwork penetrating through fire-rated compartment walls can sometimes pose a challenge to ensuring the adequacy of compartment lines. This study investigates the thermal performance of steel beams penetrating fire-rated compartment walls, focusing on heat transfer mechanisms and their implications for insulation criteria. Using Finite Element Modelling, the research evaluates protected and unprotected steel beams in various wall types, including masonry, mass timber, and plasterboard-lined light steel stud wall. The penetration through solid walls, such as brick or mass timber, exhibits similar thermal behaviour, with the required fire protection length primarily dependent on the section factor of the steel rather than wall thickness. Notably, steel beams with a section factor above 150 m⁻¹ require consistent protection lengths across different solid wall materials. In contrast, plasterboard-lined light steel stud walls introduce greater complexity due to additional variables, such as cavity width and plasterboard configuration, influencing the temperature profile of the steel beam. The study highlights the inverse relationship between the section factor and the length of the steel exceeding insulation criteria, emphasizing the need for tailored fire protection strategies. These findings provide critical insights for improving fire safety in designs involving steel penetrations and underscore the necessity of case-specific analysis to ensure compliance with fire resistance requirements.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104414"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144070559","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Modeling of the gravitational deposition of firebrands subject to a turbulent jet flow","authors":"Patrick Damiani,&nbsp;Aditya Mankame,&nbsp;Babak Shotorban","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104403","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104403","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The deposition of firebrands carried by horizontal round jet flow was investigated using Lagrangian tracking and large-eddy simulation with a version of FDS modified by our group to include new features for additional Lagrangian models (e.g., Mankame &amp; Shotorban, 2021). The simulations were configured to replicate previous VUFP firebrand generator experiments (Wadhwani et al., 2017), where firebrands were carried by airflow through a pipe and the resulting jet flow, before deposited on the ground. Validation of jet flow simulation was performed by comparing jet spread rate and velocity decay constant against previous experimental and theoretical values for free jet flows. Firebrands were released from the jet exit. Both drag and gravitational forces were found to play significant roles in firebrand motion, with drag reversal observed when firebrands exited the jet flow—initially accelerating and later impeding forward motion. Quantitative analysis using particle time constants and terminal velocities indicated that small-scale turbulence had a negligible effect on the firebrand trajectories, explaining the observed smoothness of the trajectories. The firebrand simulations were assessed for the considered Lagrangian models by comparing the probability density functions of the deposited firebrands’ coordinates against those reported in previous experimental and simulation studies (Wadhwani et al., 2017).</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104403"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143942378","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessment of the proposed wildfire curves for housing design protection","authors":"Cesare Fiorini ,&nbsp;Mario Arruda ,&nbsp;Hélder D. Craveiro ,&nbsp;Aldina Santiago ,&nbsp;Fernando Branco","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104409","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104409","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The need to protect structures from the hazards of wildfires remains an area requiring further investigation. In this context, this study focuses on the analysis of a novel approach for defining and implementing standardized wildfire curves (WC) for the fire safety design of dwellings at the wildland-urban interface (WUI). The primary objective is to introduce the proposed WC and evaluate its representativeness in comparison to real cases documented in the literature, thereby validating its applicability. Emphasis is placed on the development of realistic standard fire time-temperature curves for natural fuels such as trees, shrubs, and litter. An extensive literature review was conducted to collect the most relevant time-temperature datasets, spanning experimental research from the 1960s to the most recent studies in 2023. These datasets were obtained using thermocouple devices positioned at various heights within the fuel bed. The study incorporates data from field tests, laboratory experiments, and real-life wildfire incidents in Portugal and other countries. Additionally, the authors present temperature curves acquired <em>in situ</em> from wildfires they monitored. Furthermore, a case study involving an external wall composed of classical construction materials commonly used in Portugal is numerically analyzed using the proposed WC. The heat transfer analysis examines the temperature distribution and internal heat flux. The results indicate that the WC effectively represents the scenario in which the highest internal temperatures within a dwelling are observed, highlighting its potential applicability in fire safety design.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104409"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143932058","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Numerical assessment of castellated stainless steel columns under axial compression and high temperatures","authors":"Eric Guilherme Mendes ,&nbsp;Alexandre Rossi ,&nbsp;Renato Silva Nicoletti ,&nbsp;Adriano Silva de Carvalho ,&nbsp;Paulo Vila Real ,&nbsp;Carlos Humberto Martins","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104408","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104408","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study analyzes castellated stainless steel columns under compression and high temperatures, carrying out a parametric study with 2520 analyses. The results indicate the EN 1993-1-1:2022 [1] standard provides good predictions for carbon steel but underestimates the bearing capacity of stainless steel at room temperature. In fire conditions, EN 1993-1-2:2005 [2] was shown to be insufficient to capture the initial loss of strength of stainless steel, especially in the first phases of thermal exposure, where the resistance capacity dropped by about 10 % in 15 min, compared with a drop of 6 % for carbon steel. After 30 min of exposure, both materials stabilized their resistance capacity, reaching about 80 % and 85 % of the original resistance for stainless and carbon steel, respectively. Longer exposure times to fire produced higher analytical and numerical load capacity ratio values. This study reinforces the need to develop more accurate normative models and adjust current standards to better evaluate the behavior of these structures under compression and fire.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104408"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143929606","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Radiative properties of firefighter helmets: Effect of color and soot deposition on thermal performance","authors":"A. Collin ,&nbsp;Z. Acem ,&nbsp;M. Suzanne ,&nbsp;F. Testa ,&nbsp;G. Baulin","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104405","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104405","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the thermal radiative properties of firefighter helmets, focusing on the influence of helmet color and soot deposition on their performance. Firefighters’ helmets, often chrome plated for reflectivity or colored for functional visibility, play a critical role in protecting against radiant heat during operations. Through infrared spectrum measurements, this work analyzes the directional-hemispherical reflectivity and absorptivity of various helmets, assessing factors such as helmet color and surface conditions. Results indicate that chrome plated helmets reflect most of the radiative heat (average reflectivity of 83% at 1000 K) providing superior thermal protection. In contrast, colored helmets show reduced reflectivity, ranging from 3% to 14%, resulting in increased radiative absorption. Helmets, covered by soot and combustion products), demonstrate a reflectivity drop to approximately 36% for a chrome plated helmet, highlighting the importance of regular cleaning to maintain thermal protection. These findings advance the understanding of thermal performance differences among helmet types, contributing to improved firefighter safety and offering insights into future helmet design considerations. All experimental data collected in this study are available in an open-access database for further uses.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104405"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-05-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143903384","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Residual load-bearing capacity of large-scale prestressed concrete roof slabs after fire exposure","authors":"Chuanguo Fu ,&nbsp;Yunxing Wang ,&nbsp;Guoxi He ,&nbsp;Gaojian Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104407","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104407","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;div&gt;&lt;div&gt;Large-scale prestressed concrete (PC) roof-slabs are fundamental structural components extensively used in industrial construction. These slabs have large spans and thin profiles, rendering them susceptible to substantial degradation in load-bearing capacity when exposed to high-temperature fires. Currently, there is a lack of experimental research data on the performance deterioration of such large-scale slabs under high-temperature fire conditions. This highlights the significance of conducting experimental investigations into the fire resistance properties of large-scale PC slabs from theoretical and practical perspectives. In this study, 11 large-scale PC slab specimens were manufactured, with three slabs designated as reference specimens for comparison at ambient temperature. Leveraging a large-scale fire simulation test system, the remaining eight PC slabs were subjected to post-fire residual load-bearing performance tests, considering variations in fire exposure duration and cooling methods. The temperature field distribution during the heating and cooling processes, the deflection deformation characteristics, and the crack distribution patterns after cooling of the PC slabs were observed and analyzed. Furthermore, a comparative analysis was conducted to assess the impact of different fire exposure durations and cooling methods on the degradation of the overall load-bearing performance of slabs. Post-fire static loading tests showed that the slabs retained good overall load-bearing performance after fire exposure. The slabs exhibited the structural characteristics of integrated slab and rib behavior, with the primary rib remaining the key load-bearing component. The overall load-bearing capacity of the slabs after a fire primarily depends on the residual load-bearing capacity of the primary and secondary ribs. Compared to slabs under ambient conditions, the overall flexural stiffness and ultimate load-bearing capacity of the fire-exposed slabs showed varying degrees of reduction. The slabs subjected to natural cooling after different fire exposure durations (30, 45, 60 and 75 min) experienced reductions in ultimate load-bearing capacity by 1.5, 2.3, 4.4, and 15 %, respectively, compared to ambient-condition slabs. For slabs cooled with water, the reductions were 2.8, 6.0, 7.4, and 12.4 %, respectively. The flexural stiffness of slabs cooled naturally after fire exposure was lower than that of slabs cooled with water. The experimental results indicated that large-scale PC slabs exposed to fire for equivalent standard heating times of 24, 39, and 50 min experienced less than 8 % reduction in overall post-fire load-bearing capacity. Therefore, from a load-bearing capacity perspective, large-scale slabs of this type exposed to standard heating for up to 50 min still maintain good load-bearing performance. The findings of this study provide valuable reference data for fire-resistant design, post-fire assessment, and reinforcement of l","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104407"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-04-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143899645","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"CFD analysis of performance-based explosion protection design for battery energy storage systems (BESS)","authors":"Damilare Olugbemide ,&nbsp;Noah Ryder","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104406","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104406","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;div&gt;&lt;div&gt;This study evaluates three explosion protection designs for a Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) unit as part of a Hazard Mitigation Analysis (HMA). This is done in accordance with the requirements for explosion protection in NFPA 855, &lt;em&gt;Standard for the Installation of Stationary Energy Storage Systems&lt;/em&gt;. The BESS unit is a lithium-ion-based stationary energy storage system with nominal internal dimensions of 3.1 m (L) x 2.1 m (W) x 2.4 m (H) and a free air volume of 6.1 m&lt;sup&gt;3&lt;/sup&gt;. It has four racks composed of eight modules each. Two commercially available cells—EVE and CATL—are used in the analysis to highlight the differences between cell compositions and the implications for explosion pressure and flame propagation. The analysis is performed using the FLACS (Flame Acceleration Simulator) computational fluid dynamics (CFD) tool developed by Gexcon.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;The three designs considered are natural ventilation, combustible concentration reduction, and standard deflagration venting. For the natural ventilation method, the installed ventilation panel is designed to open at 60&lt;sup&gt;o&lt;/sup&gt; (to the horizontal plane) on activation by a gas sensor located in the BESS unit. The sensor triggers the ventilation panel actuator when the concentration of the released gas inside the unit has reached a pre-determined level. The analysis determines whether the natural ventilation provided by the vent opening is sufficient to maintain the gas concentration within the unit at or below 25 % of the lower flammability limit (LFL), thereby preventing an explosion in the unit. The combustible concentration reduction method is one of the standard methods of deflagration prevention for equipment handling combustible materials discussed in NFPA 69, &lt;em&gt;Standard on Explosion Prevention System&lt;/em&gt;. NFPA 69 requires that the mechanical ventilation provided for the unit should be sufficient to maintain the gas concentration within it at or below 25 % of the LFL. The third and final design is standard deflagration venting as specified in NFPA 68, &lt;em&gt;Standard Explosion Protection by Deflagration Venting&lt;/em&gt;. A single vent panel is provided to relieve explosion pressure in the unit. It is designed to activate at a static pressure (P&lt;sub&gt;stat&lt;/sub&gt;) of 0.05 bar-g. The analysis determines whether the vent size is adequate to safely vent the unit and prevent its structural failure in the event of a deflagration. Results of large-scale testing show that for typical BESS units, panels, fasteners, and other components may begin to fail at about 0.07–0.14 bar-g. Thus, this pressure range is used as the performance criterion for this analysis.&lt;/div&gt;&lt;div&gt;The results of this analysis show that the second design option (the combustible concentration reduction method) provides the best outcome for explosion protection of the BESS unit. The other designs provide modest degrees of pressure relief, depending on several factors. Consequently, these design approaches ","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"155 ","pages":"Article 104406"},"PeriodicalIF":3.4,"publicationDate":"2025-04-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143902295","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}