Fire Safety Journal最新文献

{"title":"A theoretical model to calculate the thermal radiation from localized fire to vertical surfaces located inside and outside the flame","authors":"Junjie Wei ,&nbsp;Chao Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104511","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104511","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper presents a theoretical model to calculate the radiative heat fluxes from localized fires to vertical surfaces. The fire volume is modeled as a series of concentric hollow cylinders (CHCs), each treated as an isothermal graybody with uniform height and width. New methods for determining the emissivity of individual CHC elements, as well as the view factors and transmissivity between each CHC and the target surface, are introduced. The radiative contributions from each CHC element using a simplified view factor approach and incorporating transmissive radiation losses through Beer's law and Kirchoff's law to account for medium absorption. The proposed model is validated against experimental data from the literature and verified through three-dimensional (3D) simulations using the Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS). Comparisons with experimental data and simulation results indicate that the model provides conservative and reliable predictions for vertical surfaces both inside and outside the flame. Compared to the other classic flame models, the proposed model demonstrates improved accuracy outside the flame. Furthermore, the model fills a critical methodological gap by enabling the calculation of radiative heat fluxes not only on vertical surfaces within the flame but also on vertical surfaces with arbitrary normal directions at any position in space. This makes the model a valuable tool for advancing structural fire engineering design and risk assessment in localized fire scenarios.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"157 ","pages":"Article 104511"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-08-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144931732","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effect of fire department response time on fire damage in the Netherlands","authors":"G.M. Montagna ,&nbsp;P.L. van den Berg ,&nbsp;V. Oskam ,&nbsp;C.J. Jagtenberg ,&nbsp;V. Oosterveen ,&nbsp;R.D. van der Mei ,&nbsp;J. Klooster","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104517","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104517","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Fire department response times are often used as a measure of their performance, even though its influence on the outcome is not well understood. In this study, we investigate the effect of the response time on the final damage to a building after a fire. We use a partial proportional odds model to measure how one extra minute of response time influences the probability of the damage exceeding a certain threshold, using data on building fires in the Netherlands from 2018 to 2022. Our results show that the probability of large damage increases almost linearly with the response time. As a rule of thumb, the probability of large damage increases with an average of 1% with each additional minute of response time. Furthermore, to minimize the probability of total loss each minute after a response time of about 10 min becomes increasingly more valuable.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"157 ","pages":"Article 104517"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-08-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144988496","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Beyond the worst-case scenario: Inconsistencies in dust flammability parameter determination for organic solid fuels","authors":"Nieves Fernandez-Anez ,&nbsp;Isabel Amez ,&nbsp;Bjarne C. Hagen ,&nbsp;Alberto Tascon ,&nbsp;Blanca Castells","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104518","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104518","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The use of solid organic fuels is expected to continue increasing during the near future, requiring bigger facilities and storage units. It is known that one of the main risks associated to these materials is the risk of fire and explosion. While flammability parameters and testing standards have been adapted from fossil fuel research, these adaptations often fail to account for the unique properties and behaviour of organic dusts. This study aims to critically evaluate the applicability of current flammability testing standards to organic solid fuels, identify inconsistencies in parameter determination, and propose improvements to enhance safety assessments. Special attention is given to the influence of particle size, moisture content, and composition on ignition sensitivity. A comprehensive literature review was conducted alongside experimental thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) of wood pellet dusts under varying conditions. The study examined how methodological variables (such as crucible size, heating rate, and gas atmosphere) affect thermal decomposition profiles and ignition-related parameters. The results reveal that current standards often overlook critical variables such as sample preparation, dispersion method, and equipment configuration, leading to inconsistent or non-representative results. TGA parameters like maximum weight loss temperature and induction temperature were found to be sensitive to test conditions. The study underscores the need for more detailed and standardized testing protocols tailored to organic dusts. It advocates for a shift beyond worst-case scenario assumptions toward more realistic, scenario-specific assessments. These improvements are essential for enhancing the reliability of flammability data and ensuring safer industrial practices involving combustible dusts.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"158 ","pages":"Article 104518"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-08-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145107899","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Bench-scale flammability testing to optimize the effectiveness of fire retardant treatment of wildland fuels","authors":"C. Álvarez ,&nbsp;N. Correa ,&nbsp;F. Valenzuela ,&nbsp;M. Reveco ,&nbsp;J. Ferrer ,&nbsp;R. Demarco ,&nbsp;A. Fuentes ,&nbsp;A. Simeoni ,&nbsp;P. Reszka","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104509","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104509","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This work focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of fire retardants, using bench-scale flammability apparatuses to test <em>Pinus radiata</em> D. Don needles. Two devices entirely developed in Chile, representative of continuous and discontinuous ignition modes, were used. The product tested was Phos-Chek LC65A-Fx, commonly used in wildfire fighting operations in Chile. The retardant was applied on the pine needles at different concentrations in order to study the effect of retardant concentration (<span><math><msub><mrow><mi>σ</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>r</mi><mi>e</mi><mi>t</mi></mrow></msub></math></span>) on different flammability parameters. Notable findings include a modification in flame behaviour in treated samples, with reduced smouldering and prolonged flame duration. As expected, the ignition delay times increase with the amount of retardant, showing a similar behaviour as the heat release rates (HRR). Interestingly, the critical heat flux (<span><math><msubsup><mrow><mover><mrow><mi>q</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>̇</mo></mrow></mover></mrow><mrow><mi>c</mi><mi>r</mi><mi>i</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>′</mo><mo>′</mo></mrow></msubsup></math></span>) corresponding to spotting ignition was not affected by the addition of retardants, although an increase in ignition times (<span><math><msub><mrow><mi>t</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>i</mi><mi>g</mi></mrow></msub></math></span>) was noticeable. Experimental observations underscore distinct flame dynamics, highlighting the potential of retardants to impede fire propagation. This study highlights the crucial role of retardants in fire management strategies and emphasizes the need for optimal application, especially in urban areas adjacent to forests.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"157 ","pages":"Article 104509"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-08-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144931731","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Criteria for non-combustibility tests for class 1 laminated and decorated building materials","authors":"Tzu-Yan Tseng ,&nbsp;Ming-Yuan Lei ,&nbsp;Chen-Ming Hsiao ,&nbsp;Kuang-Chung Tsai","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104519","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104519","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In Taiwan, the non-combustibility test for building materials has been changed from CNS 6532 (based on JIS 1321) to CNS 15694 (based on ISO 1182), but the non-combustibility performance is still ranked using the “old” criteria of CNS 6532. There consequently exists a need to evaluate the feasibility of existing criteria. This study analyzed the differences of the two non-combustibility test methods, i.e. CNS 6532 and CNS 15694, and discussed the criteria applying ISO 1182 in other countries. A series of experiments is conducted to evaluate whether the current criteria can adequately rank the non-combustibility performance of building materials. Ten specimens selected from laminated and decorated building materials are tested for the comparative experiment since their “reaction to fire” performance may be complicated.</div><div>Our analysis demonstrates that the thermal environment in CNS 6532 and CNS15694 are different. CNS 15694 specifies that no automatic thermostatic can be used to control the furnace during testing but CNS 6532 does not. The temperatures for CNS 6532 tests return closer to the furnace setting temperature. Accordingly, the criteria for CNS 6532 cannot be used for CNS 15694. Additionally, the experimental results show that there is no significant difference in mass loss percentage. Further, for ensuring better confirmation of fire safety, a stricter assessment is recommended. Conclusively, this study recommends that the criteria for a non-combustibility test should comply with the Japanese standard, although the duration of flame is not included.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"157 ","pages":"Article 104519"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-08-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144911992","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Data-driven and explainable AI models for evaluating bond strength in reinforced concrete at elevated temperatures","authors":"Rwayda Kh.S. Al-Hamd ,&nbsp;Asad S. Albostami ,&nbsp;Holly Warren","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104514","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104514","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The bond between steel and concrete in reinforced concrete (RC) and fibre-reinforced concrete (FRC) structures is a multifaceted and intricate phenomenon. It refers to the adhesion and mechanical interlock between the steel reinforcement bars and the surrounding concrete matrix. The bond becomes more complex at elevated temperatures; however, having an accurate estimate is a crucial factor in design. Therefore, this paper employs advanced machine learning (ML) techniques to predict bond strength (<em>T_b</em>) at both ambient and elevated temperatures from a 394-point experimental database, which includes additional variables such as fibre content, geometric ratios, and thermal parameter conditions. Seven models were built and assessed, including Linear Regression (LR), Gradient Boosting (GB), Extreme Gradient Boosting (XGBoost), Artificial Neural Network (ANN), <em>k</em>-nearest Neighbours (KNN), Decision Tree (DT), and Deep Learning (DLearning) Regressors. The GB, XGBoost, and DT models offered the best prediction results with R² above 0.95 for the testing datasets, lowest error metrics (mean absolute error (MAE) between 0.8 and 1.1 MPa), and highest reliability (a30%-index ≥ 90%), all outperforming those reported in earlier literature. According to SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) analysis, the length-to-diameter ratio (<span><math><mrow><mfrac><mi>l</mi><mi>d</mi></mfrac></mrow></math></span>) and failure surface temperature (<span><math><mrow><mi>T</mi></mrow></math></span>) dominated as the predictors, followed by concrete compressive strength (<span><math><mrow><msub><mi>f</mi><mi>c</mi></msub></mrow></math></span>), and cover-to-diameter ratio (<span><math><mrow><mfrac><mi>c</mi><mi>d</mi></mfrac></mrow></math></span>), which is according to the existing mechanics of bond and thermal degradation. This study presents resolutions regarding the promise of data-driven models to accurately, reliably, and interpretably predict bond strength in post-fire conditions, which is of great merit in terms of resilient design practice. Future work may investigate hybrid ML–mechanistic frameworks and the integration of full-scale fire testing to further enhance engineering applicability.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"158 ","pages":"Article 104514"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-08-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145050694","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Large eddy simulations of weakly turbulent diffusion flames in an oxygen-reduced co-flow using a new subgrid combustion model","authors":"Y. Moorthamers,&nbsp;A. Snegirev,&nbsp;G. Maragkos,&nbsp;J. At Thabari,&nbsp;B. Merci","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104513","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104513","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The recently proposed sub-grid combustion model (SCM) for weakly turbulent buoyant diffusion flames is applied to simulate 10 and 15 kW flames produced by a circular porous burner in an oxidizer co-flow with normal and reduced oxygen concentrations. Turbulence is modelled by the large eddy simulations technique. Soot production and radiative emission is predicted based on local resolved species concentrations and temperature, eliminating the need to prescribe soot yield and global radiative fraction. Finite-rate chemistry is incorporated via a single-step global reaction of fuel oxidation with temperature-dependent effective kinetic parameters, which are derived to fit the autoignition delay times predicted by detailed chemical mechanisms. When the oxidizer co-flow is ambient air, good agreement between the predicted and the measured spatial distributions of mean temperatures and soot volume fractions is demonstrated. In flames with reduced oxygen concentrations in the co-flow, the experimental combustion efficiency and radiative fraction are replicated in the simulations, and the critical oxygen concentration causing complete flame extinguishment is predicted well by the SCM. The predictions are shown to be weakly dependent on the values of model constants. Adequate representation of the flame shape requires the large turbulent fluctuations to be sufficiently resolved by the computational grid.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"157 ","pages":"Article 104513"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-08-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144988497","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"CNN-based image analysis approach for predicting THR of combustible items in buildings","authors":"Keisuke Himoto ,&nbsp;Yuta Suzuki","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104516","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104516","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The expansion and regular update of fire load databases is crucial for maintaining and improving the reliability of building evacuation safety and fire resistance design frameworks. To enhance the efficacy of fire load surveys, we developed a two-stage method to predict the total heat release (THR) <span><math><mrow><mi>q</mi></mrow></math></span> of combustible items for fire load surveys in buildings. The first stage uses Convolutional Neural Network (CNN) to predict the weight <span><math><mrow><mi>w</mi></mrow></math></span> from color image data of combustible items. The second stage multiplies this weight by the calorific value <span><math><mrow><mo>Δ</mo><mi>H</mi></mrow></math></span> obtained through regression analysis of burn test results. The weight prediction and THR conversion are independent procedures. For weight prediction, we collected web-published data on nine types of furniture and electrical appliances, which served as a training dataset for estimating CNN parameters. We confirmed that predictions could be made with reasonable accuracy for all categories. However, electronic devices such as \"Desktop PC\", \"Laptop PC\", and \"TV and Monitor\" exhibited lower prediction accuracy. These items, often black and box-shaped, proved difficult to evaluate in terms of absolute spatial dimensions. For THR conversion, we enabled processing for twelve types of combustible items. Due to limited burn test data for some combustible items, we employed hierarchical Bayesian modeling to achieve stable regression. We then applied these procedures to predict the weight and THR of combustible items stored in actual buildings. While THR validation proved challenging, we confirmed that weights could be predicted with reasonable accuracy.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"157 ","pages":"Article 104516"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-08-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144907561","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental investigation on flame geometry and downstream heat flux from diffusion flames on inclined fuel surface under sub-atmospheric pressures","authors":"Yuhang Chen,&nbsp;Shangqing Tao,&nbsp;Lingyi Di,&nbsp;Xucheng Shi,&nbsp;Wenqi Ye,&nbsp;Fei Tang,&nbsp;Longhua Hu","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104512","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104512","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>It is common that fires develop over sloping rooftops or wildfire spread on uphill slopes in plateau. However, fires over inclined fuel surface at sub-atmospheric pressures have not been well addressed in the past. In this work, the effect of sub-atmospheric pressure on flame geometry and downstream heating behavior of fires over inclined fuel surface were experimentally investigated. Ambient pressure <em>P</em> and inclination angle <span><math><mrow><mi>θ</mi></mrow></math></span> were varied from 30 to 101 kPa and 0°–40°. It was observed that the diffusion flame tends to be dimmer and the laminar portion appears to be larger at lower pressures due to inhibited soot formation and stronger molecular diffusion. Flame length scales including flame projection length and flame attachment length grow with decreased <em>P</em> and increased <span><math><mrow><mi>θ</mi></mrow></math></span>. Based on mass balance principle, flame length scales were derived to be two-thirds power of a modified dimensionless heat release rate considering smaller flow rate of energy at lower pressure. Total heat flux and its components including radiative and convective heat fluxes were found to decrease as pressure and inclinations reduce. Ultimately, a power-law decay between normalized total heat flux and downstream distance was established in flame attachment and plume-like regions covering a wide range of pressures and inclination angles.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"157 ","pages":"Article 104512"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-08-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144931730","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Cooling water injection for EV battery fires: A targeted method to suppress thermal runaway","authors":"Hie Chan Kang,&nbsp;Yeong Seok Yu,&nbsp;Gang Gyun Lee","doi":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104503","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.firesaf.2025.104503","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The increasing incidence of fires caused by thermal runaway (TR) in electric vehicles (EVs) with lithium-ion batteries is a growing public concern. Such fires are difficult to suppress due to high heat release rates, thermal insulation of battery cases, and oxygen generation within cells. This study proposes the Cooling Water Injection Case (CWIC), which delivers cooling water directly into the battery case through a hose pre-installed on the EV. Model-scale experiments with lithium-ion batteries were conducted, and results were analyzed using a simplified heat transfer model. The findings show that CWIC can suppress a passenger EV battery fire within minutes using about 100 kg of water. Based on these results, fire response plans tailored to severity are proposed, specifying necessary tools and operational guidelines. Compared with conventional firefighting tools, CWIC offers faster response, reduced water use, improved containment of harmful gases, compatibility with various vehicle designs, and enhanced firefighter safety. These advantages make CWIC a promising and practical solution for mitigating TR-induced fires in EVs, with potential implications for fire safety policy and EV design standards.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":50445,"journal":{"name":"Fire Safety Journal","volume":"157 ","pages":"Article 104503"},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2025-08-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144917763","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}