Virology Journal最新文献

{"title":"Divergent immunometabolic landscapes of chicken and swan goose identify SERPINF2 as a novel restriction factor for influenza A virus.","authors":"Fangbing Li, Chenyang Ren, Wanlin Liu, Xin Yu, Jindan Yu, Yunfeng Ma, Yali Feng, Ying Zhang","doi":"10.1186/s12985-026-03208-z","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s12985-026-03208-z","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>As the natural hosts of avian influenza virus (AIV), wild birds generally exhibit a more tolerant immune response to AIV infection compared to domestic poultry. However, the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood, partly due to limited access to wildlife biological samples imposed by animal protection principles. To investigate these differential immune responses, we established a peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) infection platform. PBMCs from domestic chickens and swan geese were infected with H9N2 AIV, and label-free quantitative comparative proteomics was performed to identify differentially expressed proteins (DEPs) between the two species, aiming to uncover potential host antiviral factors. Proteomic analysis revealed that chicken PBMCs showed marked activation of antiviral defense and inflammatory pathways, accompanied by upregulation of oxidative stress-related pathways. In contrast, swan goose PBMCs predominantly activated pathways associated with cellular integrity maintenance, metabolic homeostasis, and RNA surveillance. Subsequently, 12 DEP candidates with high expression fold-changes in swan goose PBMCs were selected and expressed in DF-1 cells to evaluate their antiviral activities. Among these, only SERPINF2, a member of the serine protease inhibitor family, significantly inhibited H9N2 AIV replication in DF-1 cells. Mechanistically, SERPINF2 suppressed viral replication by specifically inhibiting the cleavage of the viral hemagglutinin (HA) protein, thereby reducing the production of infectious progeny virions. This study reveals distinct immune response patterns to H9N2 AIV infection in chickens and swan geese, and identifies SERPINF2 as a novel restriction factor against H9N2 AIV, providing new insights into the antiviral mechanisms in natural AIV hosts.</p>","PeriodicalId":23616,"journal":{"name":"Virology Journal","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-05-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13422316/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148057310","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Recent advances in oncolytic virotherapy: insights from clinical trials and combination treatment strategies.","authors":"Omid Salahi Ardekani, Mahya Zarezade, Behshid Meymandi, Narjes Azami, Bahar Mahdavi, Toran Shahani","doi":"10.1186/s12985-026-03207-0","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s12985-026-03207-0","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background and aim: </strong>Oncolytic virotherapy is a novel therapeutic paradigm in oncology that uses viruses to selectively replicate within cancer cells, causing targeted tumor cell destruction with minimal toxicity to healthy tissues. With the rapid growth of oncolytic virotherapy and the accumulation of clinical studies on this subject, the present review aims to provide a comprehensive evaluation of current achievements in cancer treatments involving oncolytic viruses (OVs).</p><p><strong>Main text: </strong>Numerous clinical trials have been conducted to assess the therapeutic efficacy and safety of OVs across a variety of cancer types. Several OVs have received approval worldwide, with the primary ones being T-VEC (Imlygic) in the treatment of melanoma (FDA/European approval), Oncorine (H101) for cancers of the head and neck (China), and Teserpaturev for gliomas (Japan). Furthermore, several other clinical trials are currently underway, demonstrating the growing interest in the clinical development of oncolytic virotherapy as a potentially effective anticancer strategy. These clinical trials have explored multiple strategies to enhance the safety and therapeutic efficacy of OVs. Approaches include genetic modifications to improve tumor specificity, promote effective cancer cell lysis, and stimulate robust antitumor immune responses. In addition, OVs have been combined with other treatment modalities, including radiotherapy, chemotherapy, cell-based therapies, immune checkpoint inhibitors, cancer vaccines, and targeted small-molecule agents. Innovative delivery systems, including cellular carriers, nanoparticles, hydrogels, and cell-based robotic platforms, have also been developed.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Oncolytic virotherapy is a new and rapidly evolving treatment modality, which is promising in therapy against cancer. Clinical trials have proven that OVs can be a safe and effective way to treat cancer, making them an essential part of future therapies.</p>","PeriodicalId":23616,"journal":{"name":"Virology Journal","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-05-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13440092/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148057301","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Correction: Furin as target for suppression of mosquito-borne viruses.","authors":"Alejandra Centurión, Bodunrin Omokungbe, Markus Oberpaul, Ludwig Dersch, Sabrina Stiehler, Cross Chambers, Marcus Lechner, Tim Lüddecke, Alejandra Vilcinskas, Torsten Steinmetzer, Kornelia Hardes","doi":"10.1186/s12985-026-03199-x","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s12985-026-03199-x","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":23616,"journal":{"name":"Virology Journal","volume":"23 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-05-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13218007/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148057295","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Genomic characterization of SARS-CoV-2 variants circulating in the population of Bangui, Central African Republic (CAR) in 2022.","authors":"Pulchérie Pelembi, Philippe Colson, Alain Farra, Ornella Anne Sibiro-Demi, Christian Malaka, Aurélia Kwasiborski, Véronique Hourdel, Gilles Landry Ngaya, Romaric Nzoumbou-Boko, Jean-Claude Manuguerra, Emmanuel Ryvalin Nakoune-Yandoko, Guy Vernet, Bernard La Scola, Valérie Caro, Alexandre Manirakiza","doi":"10.1186/s12985-026-03203-4","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s12985-026-03203-4","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Introduction: </strong>With the ongoing global resurgence of COVID-19, it is crucial to better understand past transmission dynamics to strengthen national preparedness for future surges. Since its emergence in Wuhan, China, in December 2019, SARS-CoV-2 has caused multiple waves of infection worldwide. The World Health Organization (WHO) has identified several variants of concern, including Alpha, Beta, Gamma, and Delta. At the end of 2021, the Omicron variant emerged in South Africa and rapidly spread across the globe. While many studies have explored the evolution and transmission of these variants, data from the Central African Republic remained limited. This study aimed to identify and characterize SARS-CoV-2 variants circulating in Bangui to support genomic surveillance and COVID-19 prevention strategies. Characterizing circulating variants provides essential information for the early detection of emerging lineages, the anticipation of potential epidemic waves, and the adaptation of public health strategies.</p><p><strong>Methodology: </strong>We conducted a retrospective, descriptive study in Bangui, Central African Republic (CAR), from January to August 2022. A total of 102 nasopharyngeal samples positive for SARS-CoV-2 (Ct ≤ 30), selected from the biobank of the Pasteur Institute in Bangui, were reanalyzed using multiplex qPCR to confirm their Ct values. Eligible samples were then sequenced using the MinION MK1C (Oxford Nanopore Technologies) platform, following the ARTIC Network protocol at the Institut Pasteur, Paris (CIBU). Bioinformatics processing using reads mapping to a reference genome, followed by consensus sequence generation, included standard steps of basecalling, demultiplexing, quality filtering, genome alignment, primer trimming, consensus generation, and variant calling. The different variants were described using the Nexstrain web application.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The results revealed that 66.7% of sequenced genomes (n = 68) had high coverage ≥ 80%, all belonging to the Omicron variant. Four sub-lineages were identified according to the Pangolin classification: BA.1 (14.7%), BA.2 (35.3%), BA.4.1 (4.4%), and BA.5.1 (45.6%). These sub-lineages were present in all eight districts, with a predominance in the eighth district, and were most frequently diagnosed in June (fourth wave of the epidemic).</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Omicron was the only variant detected among successfully sequenced samples, although limited sampling and sequencing success restrict broader generalisation. It is crucial to establish continuous surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 to detect any emerging variants in real time, while strengthening sequencing capabilities at the national level. Continuous genomic surveillance is crucial to anticipate potential future COVID-19 waves and to enable timely public health responses.</p>","PeriodicalId":23616,"journal":{"name":"Virology Journal","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-05-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13418780/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148057225","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Serological epidemiology of hepatitis B virus and vaccine-induced immune dynamics in 58,169 children in Wuhan, China (2019-2025): a cross-sectional analysis of waning immunity and adolescent susceptibility.","authors":"Jie Yang, Fan Wang, Jingtao Huang","doi":"10.1186/s12985-026-03188-0","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s12985-026-03188-0","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Objectives: </strong>Despite the success of the Expanded Program on Immunization (EPI) in reducing hepatitis B virus (HBV) prevalence, the long-term durability of vaccine-induced immunity and the precise trajectory of antibody decay in Chinese pediatric populations remain under-characterized. This study investigated the seroprevalence of hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) and the kinetics of hepatitis B surface antibody (anti-HBs) in a large cohort of children in Wuhan to inform prime-boost vaccination strategies.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>We conducted a single-center, cross-sectional retrospective analysis of 58,169 children aged 0-17 years evaluated at Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University between January 2019 and November 2025. Serum HBsAg and anti-HBs levels were qualitative/quantified using chemiluminescence immunoassays (CLIA). Data were stratified by age, gender, and year. Statistical analyses utilized the Chi-square test for categorical variables and the Kruskal-Wallis test with Bonferroni‑corrected post-hoc pairwise comparisons for continuous variables.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The overall HBsAg seroprevalence was 1.27% (723/56,956). However, this rate was heavily skewed by a high frequency of transient HBsAg reactivity in neonates aged 1-30 days (11.97%), likely attributable to vaccine-induced antigenemia and assay interference. After excluding infants < 1 year, the adjusted HBsAg prevalence was 0.47%, which declined significantly from 2019 (0.81%) to 2023 (0.27%). A secondary peak in HBsAg prevalence (1.16%) was observed in adolescents aged 13 years. Among 57,004 subjects assessed for immunity, 66.27% were seroprotected (anti-HBs ≥ 10 mIU/mL). Anti-HBs seropositivity peaked at 92.64% in infants aged 7-12 months but declined precipitously to 48.98% by age 3 years. From age 5 to 17 years, protective antibody rates stabilized at suboptimal levels (30-40%). While males exhibited a higher overall response rate than females (67.21% vs. 65.03%; P < 0.001), median titers in responders did not differ by sex.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Although the HBsAg prevalence in Wuhan's pediatric population has decreased, the persistence of a 0.47% prevalence in children > 1 year and a resurgence of infection in early adolescence highlight gaps in the current elimination strategy. The rapid decay of anti-HBs titers by age 3 and the \"juvenile pause\" in immune surveillance suggest critical windows of vulnerability. These findings support the implementation of serological monitoring and targeted booster vaccination at ages 2-3 and 12-13 years to sustain population-level immunity and achieve the WHO 2030 elimination targets.</p>","PeriodicalId":23616,"journal":{"name":"Virology Journal","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-05-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13419023/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148057284","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Safety of hepatitis E vaccine in pregnancy.","authors":"Fan Zhang, Guang Yang, Yuting Chen, Dongjuan Chen, Zuliang Shi, Jianbo Xia, Ling Wang","doi":"10.1186/s12985-026-03205-2","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s12985-026-03205-2","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This comment discusses the critical public health challenge of hepatitis E in pregnancy and highlights the significant safety evidence gap for the HEV239 vaccine in this vulnerable group. Focusing on a landmark study from South Sudan by Nesbitt RC et al., we provide a critical appraisal of its findings, integrate them with prior evidence from clinical trials and animal studies, and discuss implications for vaccination policy in outbreak settings, particularly in fragile and conflict-affected contexts. The comment concludes that vaccination during pregnancy shows no detected increased risk of fetal loss, providing crucial real-world data to inform life-saving vaccination policies, while acknowledging remaining uncertainties.</p>","PeriodicalId":23616,"journal":{"name":"Virology Journal","volume":"23 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-05-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13200490/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148017555","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Standardizing antiviral response metrics for mono- and combination therapies in acute, chronic and latent viral infections.","authors":"Pavlo Petakh, Erlend Ravlo, Qiuwei Pan, Roberto Bruzzone, Valentyn Oksenych, Markus Vähä-Koskela, Oleksandr Kamyshnyi, Denis E Kainov","doi":"10.1186/s12985-026-03202-5","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s12985-026-03202-5","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The COVID-19 pandemic showed that heterogeneous antiviral assay designs, endpoints and reporting practices can obscure which candidate drugs and combinations are genuinely promising. As antiviral discovery expands from acute infections to chronic and latent viral diseases, the field needs a compact, reproducible and biologically interpretable set of response metrics. In this Personal View, we argue that EC₅₀ and the selectivity index should be retained for pharmacological interpretation but systematically complemented by drug sensitivity scores (DSS), which integrate potency and efficacy across the tested concentration range, and by ΔDSS, calculated as DSS_antiviral minus DSS_toxicity from matched efficacy and viability curves. We propose standardized modules for resistance passaging, sequencing and host-side-effect profiling so that monotherapies are assessed not only for antiviral potency but also for durability and host-cell perturbation. For combinations, we discuss Bliss, ZIP, HSA and Loewe models as complementary tools for identifying additive or synergistic regimens while accounting for toxicity, resistance suppression and drug-drug interactions. Finally, we outline how harmonized metrics can support organoid, animal and clinical prioritization, improve machine-learning datasets and guide pandemic response, including rapid monotherapy testing for some DNA viruses and early combination testing for RNA and reverse-transcribing viruses.</p>","PeriodicalId":23616,"journal":{"name":"Virology Journal","volume":"23 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-05-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13200402/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148017545","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The activation of the metabolic oxaloacetate-pyruvate axis restores influenza A virus replication during impaired glycolysis.","authors":"Chiara Robin Bojarzyn, Nadine Bieß, Matthias Behrens, Hans-Ulrich Humpf, Stephan Ludwig, Eike R Hrincius","doi":"10.1186/s12985-026-03201-6","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s12985-026-03201-6","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Viruses strongly depend on the host cell for efficient replication and influenza A virus (IAV) amongst others also lead to remarkable changes of the host cell metabolism. The restriction of virus replication through suppression of glucose metabolism has already been described. In addition to glycolysis and glutaminolysis, viral replication also relies on the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. So far, the metabolic key intermediate of the TCA cycle, oxaloacetate (OAA), is described to enhance glycolysis and respiration flux rates under metabolic stress conditions. However, the mode of action of the metabolic fuel intermediate OAA in direct relation to influenza viral growth under strong glycolysis inhibition remains unclear. As the TCA cycle acts as a central metabolic hub linking all major metabolic pathways, the effects of OAA under glycolysis inhibition were examined in greater detail in this study. We aimed to get a better understanding of metabolic host-virus interactions and to analyze the effects of metabolic fueling intermediates on IAV replication under glycolysis inhibition. We inhibited glycolysis and supplemented IAV infected cells with the metabolic fueling intermediate OAA. Inhibition of glycolysis led to a statistically significant reduction of viral titers while OAA addition reversed the antiviral effects such as reduced viral protein accumulation, viral titers, and vRNA expression. In line with previous studies, we showed that mannose, which is closely connected to glycolysis, circumvents the virus restricting effects of glycolysis inhibition. Moreover, we demonstrated that supplementation of mannose or OAA led to a roughly comparable replication recovery under strong inhibition of glycolysis. Furthermore, mass spectrometry-based metabolomics data revealed a strong accumulation of pyruvate in OAA supplemented samples. Finally, comparing OAA and pyruvate rescuing capacities of IAV growth under glycolysis inhibition tended to show similar activities for both metabolites arguing that OAA mediated IAV rescue is achieved through its conversion to pyruvate. Summarizing, our data indicate that the TCA cycle intermediate OAA has virus supporting effects as it reversed the antiviral effects of glycolysis inhibition.</p>","PeriodicalId":23616,"journal":{"name":"Virology Journal","volume":"23 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-05-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13200417/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148017478","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Predictive value of serum S100A8/A9 for liver dysfunction in pregnant women with chronic hepatitis B.","authors":"Weiwei Geng, Hong Yu, Yuan Li, Li Liu, Yanfang Xiao","doi":"10.1186/s12985-026-03190-6","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s12985-026-03190-6","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>S100 calcium-binding protein A8/A9 (S100A8/A9) is a marker of innate immune activation and inflammation, but its value in predicting liver dysfunction in HBV-infected pregnant women remains unclear. This study aims to explore the predictive value of early-pregnancy serum S100A8/A9 for mid-to-late pregnancy liver dysfunction in chronic HBV-infected pregnant women, and its correlation with adverse pregnancy outcomes.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>A retrospective cohort study included 139 chronic HBV-infected pregnant women. Serum S100A8/A9 levels were measured via ELISA, and participants were subsequently divided into abnormal liver function (ALF) and normal liver function (NLF) groups based on mid-to-late pregnancy liver function. Logistic regression analysis identified independent risk factors for abnormal liver function and adverse pregnancy outcomes, while receiver operating characteristic curves evaluated S100A8/A9's predictive efficacy.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Early-pregnancy serum S100A8/A9 levels were significantly higher in the ALF group than in the NLF group, and positively correlated with HBV-DNA load and ALT. Elevated S100A8/A9 was an independent risk factor for liver dysfunction and predictor of adverse pregnancy outcomes. ROC curve analysis showed S100A8/A9 had an AUC of 0.882 for identifying liver dysfunction.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Early-pregnancy serum S100A8/A9 may serve as a potential predictive marker for liver function impairment and adverse pregnancy outcomes in chronic HBV-infected women, helping with early clinical identification and management.</p>","PeriodicalId":23616,"journal":{"name":"Virology Journal","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-05-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13371372/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147989287","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Viral associations in multiple sclerosis: pathogenetic mechanisms and therapeutic implications.","authors":"Mostafa Meshref, Ahmed Salah Hussein, Sahar Ahmed Allam, Khaled Moghib, Hossam Younis, Nevin Shalaby","doi":"10.1186/s12985-026-03143-z","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s12985-026-03143-z","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a neurological inflammatory disease with a complex etiology involving the dysregulated immune system, chronic inflammation, and genetic susceptibility. Although the precise cause of MS is unknown, previous studies have found a strong link between MS and certain viral infections, leading researchers to speculate that viruses may play a role in MS pathogenesis by acting as environmental triggers. We present a comprehensive review of viral associations with MS, focusing on viruses with strong evidence for involvement in disease development, including members of the Herpesviridae family-such as Epstein-Barr virus, human herpesvirus 6, varicella-zoster virus, herpes simplex virus 1, cytomegalovirus, and SARS-CoV-2. Those viruses appear to modulate the neuro-immunological system in genetically susceptible individuals, leading to immune-mediated demyelination. Viral exposure is thought to represent an early initiating or permissive event that triggers downstream immune dysregulation, ultimately leading to MS onset in predisposed hosts. Additionally, they can cause latent infections with episodes of reactivation, which might be associated with relapsing presentation of MS. Several theories have been proposed to explain the viral etiology of MS, including molecular mimicry, virus-induced inflammatory response, autoreactive T- and B-cell activation, and increased susceptibility to antigenic exposure. Besides addressing the current knowledge gap, we also highlight future research directions for effective MS management, including developing experimental models and conducting clinical trials, identifying specific biomarkers, and investigating novel antiviral agents. An improved understanding of MS etiology and the role of viruses in its physiopathology may enable more targeted interventions and better treatment outcomes.</p>","PeriodicalId":23616,"journal":{"name":"Virology Journal","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-05-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13195963/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147989368","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}