Earth Surface Processes and Landforms最新文献

{"title":"Testing the predictive capability of the Index of Connectivity for debris-flow coupling under varying forcing conditions: Insights from two consecutive events in the Horlachtal catchment, Austria","authors":"Toni Himmelstoss,&nbsp;Jakob Rom,&nbsp;Florian Haas,&nbsp;Michael Becht,&nbsp;Tobias Heckmann","doi":"10.1002/esp.70173","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70173","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This study examines the relationship between structural connectivity, forcing conditions and functional connectivity of debris flows in an alpine catchment in the Austrian Alps. We investigate two consecutive rainfall events in the Horlachtal valley in 2022 that triggered 163 and 69 debris flows, respectively, providing a unique opportunity to assess connectivity under different rainfall forcing magnitudes. Using the Index of Connectivity (IC) to represent structural connectivity, spatially distributed precipitation data for forcing and a debris flow–channel proximity metric to quantify functional connectivity, we evaluate how well the IC predicts debris flow–channel coupling with and without incorporating observed forcing information. Our results demonstrate that the IC serves as a robust predictor of debris flow connectivity across different forcing conditions, with strong correlations for both events. While observed rainfall forcing showed moderate correlation with functional connectivity, their inclusion in predictive models provided only marginal improvement (2% additional variance explained) over IC alone. This suggests that topographic and morphological constraints, rather than precipitation patterns, predominantly control debris flow propagation in this setting. Notably, the predictive capability of the IC proved relatively stable despite substantial differences in rainfall magnitude between events. Various regression models were evaluated, with quadratic and beta regression approaches performing best. The proximity metric used in this study offers advantages over binary coupling classifications by providing more nuanced information about functional connectivity, especially valuable when most observed processes do not reach the channel network. These findings empirically validate the IC as a meaningful descriptor of system structure in alpine catchments and suggest that challenges in spatial transferability of IC models likely stem from factors other than forcing variability.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 13","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-10-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/esp.70173","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145224282","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A new way to geoengineer landscapes using computer-based landform evolution models","authors":"Greg Hancock,&nbsp;J. F. Martín Duque,&nbsp;W. D. Dimuth P. Welivitiya","doi":"10.1002/esp.70161","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70161","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The design and construction of post-mining landforms is a complex undertaking where any structure requires integration with underlying materials and the surrounding unmined or undisturbed landscape. A common reconstruction design for post-mining landscapes is to have linear hillslopes with drains or runoff diversion structures that are designed for the hillslope length, angle and climate. These landscapes are easy to construct and result in a surface which can be easily traversed by agricultural machinery, while the benches often rely on drainage control structures to manage runoff and resultant erosion. Few mines worldwide have committed to a catchment-based reconstruction approach or that employing geomorphic design. Here, a method for catchment design has employed a simple strategy of an uplifted catchment being allowed to evolve using a computer-based Landscape Evolution Model until the volume matches that of a proposed design. The computer-generated landforms are compared with that of a catchment created using site hydrology and sediment transport conditions (Expert Knowledge) by a recognised design engineer. The results demonstrate that a computer-generated landscape produces sediment output within that of target erosion rates with low gully depths. The design created using Expert Knowledge produces sediment output above background erosion rates as well as having maximum gully depths of up to 2.7 m. Modelling demonstrates that computer-generated designs produce erosion rates which are approximately one-third to half that of the Expert Knowledge design, with a commensurate reduction in maximum gully depth. The computer model-generated catchments also have a more natural appearance with regular curvature and channel definition. A key finding is that landscapes with a series of smaller catchments and a more complex drainage network produce less sediment output.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 13","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/esp.70161","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145196431","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Large wood recruitment in the Tegnas torrent (Italy): The impact of the Vaia storm and the role of the riparian forest structure","authors":"Lorenzo Martini,&nbsp;Giacomo Pellegrini,&nbsp;Guglielmo Stecca,&nbsp;Lorenzo Picco","doi":"10.1002/esp.70168","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70168","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This study investigates large wood (LW) recruitment from the floodplain to the channel in a mountain stream in northeastern Italy, following the exceptional 2018 flood triggered by the Vaia Storm, a severe windstorm and intense precipitation event. It aims to quantify in-channel LW loads, estimate floodplain-recruited LW volumes, explore the links between hydraulic forcing, sediment balance, lateral connectivity and recruitment and explore the potential of numerical modelling in such a context. The study focuses on a 9.5 km segment of the Tegnas Torrent, a mountain stream with a catchment area of 52 km². Post-event in-channel LW was quantified through field surveys across sampling segments, while to assess recruitment volumes, a combination of pre- and post-event remote sensing data and 2019 field plots was used to estimate standing volumes and identify trees eroded by flood-induced channel widening. At the reach scale, key variables related to hydraulic forcing, sediment dynamics and lateral connectivity were evaluated, and correlations with LW recruitment were analysed. Finally, a two-dimensional numerical model was applied to simulate and compare the flood-driven erosion and wood recruitment. The total in-channel LW volume was estimated at 496 m³ ± 220 m³, averaging 18 m³ ha⁻¹, which is consistent with values from nearby, although undisturbed, mountain streams. In contrast, 2080 m³ (132 m³ ha⁻¹) of wood was recruited due to lateral channel widening. Our findings revealed that recruitment is influenced by complex factors, with limited correlation to sediment dynamics and hydraulic energy. Wider lateral erosion does not always lead to higher recruitment, as the riparian corridor's forest composition and structure play a key role. The numerical model provided reasonable estimates of channel widening and associated LW recruitment, making it a useful tool for approximating potential flood-induced planform changes. However, for more accurate results, further refinement in vegetation and sediment transport modelling is necessary.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 13","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/esp.70168","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145223952","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Study on deformation mechanism and reinforcement measures of flat-top grotto roof","authors":"Keyuan Liu,&nbsp;Zhigang Tao,&nbsp;Xiaotian Lei,&nbsp;Xiaojie Yang,&nbsp;Fengnian Wang,&nbsp;Shusen Huo,&nbsp;Taibin Feng,&nbsp;Siwei Jiang","doi":"10.1002/esp.70153","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70153","url":null,"abstract":"<p>With the intensification of global warming, the frequency and intensity of extreme rainfall events continue to rise, especially unstable precipitation, which poses a significant challenge to the stability of grottoes. The variations in water pressure and humidity induced by rainfall exacerbate the propagation of fissures in the roof plate, further compromising the structural integrity of the grotto's roof. This study takes the Dazu Rock Carvings in China as a case study, utilising Rayleigh wave imaging monitoring, theoretical analysis, numerical simulation, and on-site multi-dimensional monitoring methods to reveal the mechanisms behind the formation of fissures in the grotto roof and the deformation behaviour under both natural and rainfall conditions. Based on these findings, corresponding support strategies are proposed. The results show that the fissures in the grotto roof are primarily caused by the settlement deformation and tensile-shear failure of the surrounding rock. Rainfall increases the tensile stress on the roof plate, further exacerbating the fissure propagation. In addition, the formation of a cavity on the southern side accelerates the instability of the roof. The concentration of tensile and shear stresses causes instability in the grotto sidewalls near the cavity, and rainfall further intensifies this trend. To mitigate the expansion of fissures in the roof plate, the proposed reinforcement strategy utilises the bearing capacity of the overlying rock layers to support the roof while minimising interference with the sculptures inside the grotto. This study not only helps clarify the evolution of the roof damage process but also provides theoretical guidance for formulating appropriate support strategies.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 12","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145224414","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Relative sediment supply and excess shear stress drives the evolution of restored side channels in a regulated river","authors":"Rocko A. Brown,&nbsp;Jared G. Stieve,&nbsp;Kirsten Sellheim,&nbsp;Joseph Merz","doi":"10.1002/esp.70165","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70165","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Side channel restoration—including creation, rehabilitation and enhancement—is a common strategy to mitigate habitat degradation in regulated rivers. While short-term ecological benefits are well documented, the longer-term geomorphic evolution of restored side channels remains less understood. In natural systems, side channels typically occur at dynamic bifurcations influenced by slope and sediment supply, whereas restoration efforts in regulated rivers often prioritize static design targets (e.g., a fixed inundation area at a given flow). We monitored two restored side channels along a regulated river in California over a five-year period to investigate how geomorphic and habitat conditions evolve post-restoration. Our objectives were to (1) document geomorphic and habitat changes and (2) assess how excess shear stress and relative sediment supply influence channel evolution. We tracked changes in sediment and large wood budgets, bed profiles, grain size distributions, bar formation, inundation patterns and tracer rock displacement and interpreted these in the context of reach-scale and geomorphic-scale shear stress. Results show that the steeper, upstream site experienced greater erosion and a loss of low-flow inundation area due to higher flow energy and excess shear stress, while the downstream site remained relatively stable and gained inundated habitat. Importantly, reach-scale excess shear stress served as an effective proxy for relative sediment supply, explaining observed differences in geomorphic response between sites. Both channels lost more large wood than they recruited, highlighting the need for integrated sediment and wood management. Normalized rates of geomorphic change declined over time, suggesting that the primary morphological adjustments occurred shortly after construction. These findings underscore the importance of reach-scale context in designing and evaluating side channel restoration and demonstrate how multi-scalar monitoring—particularly incorporating reach-scale excess shear stress—can improve understanding of post-restoration dynamics.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 12","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145172016","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Time scales of river bifurcations","authors":"Gabriele Barile,&nbsp;Marco Redolfi,&nbsp;Marco Tubino","doi":"10.1002/esp.70159","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70159","url":null,"abstract":"<p>River bifurcations are the fundamental building blocks of a variety of fluvial environments such as braiding and anastomosed rivers, alluvial fans, and river deltas. Their long-term equilibrium configurations have been widely explored, together with the influence of several external forcing factors, whereas less attention has been devoted to investigate the characteristic timescale with which bifurcations evolve over time. In this work, we address this issue by combining the results of a 1-D numerical model with those obtained through a linear stability analysis that accounts for the length of bifurcates. Numerical results show that the timescale of the adaptation of water and sediment partition at the bifurcation node is much shorter than the time required to achieve the long-term equilibrium of the bifurcates. We find that the nodal point evolution becomes faster as the value of the width-to-depth ratio increases above the critical threshold for the bifurcation stability, while it gets slower as the length of the bifurcates increases. The timescale becomes independent of the branch length when this length exceeds a threshold value above which the effect of the downstream boundary condition no longer affects the evolution of the bifurcation node. The analysis of a large dataset of gravel-bed bifurcations reveals that the evolutionary timescale of most of them is larger than that of natural flow variations. Moreover, the rate at which the water and sediment partitioning at bifurcations changes over time is generally smaller than the fluctuation rate of sediment transport caused by the migration of bars in the upstream channel, especially for bifurcations with long branches.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 12","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/esp.70159","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145172031","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Influence of erosive drivers on the morphology of gullies in the Pampa biome, Southern Brazil","authors":"Lucas Krein Rademann,&nbsp;Romario Trentin,&nbsp;Luis Eduardo de Souza Robaina","doi":"10.1002/esp.70166","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70166","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Gully erosion is a complex form of erosion with a large environmental and economic impact, causing loss of fertile soil, siltation of rivers, and changes in the landscape and drainage channels, which have impacted the environmental balance of the Pampa biome in Southern Brazil. The complexity of this process leads to the formation of different shapes of gullies. Studying the morphology of gullies and the main erosion mechanisms acting on them is important to understand the erosion process. With high-resolution data from UAV survey and data from fieldwork, the morphometry and the main erosive drivers of three spatially close gullies with different shapes and intensities in the Pampa biome region were analysed. The V1 gully is the largest of the three studied, showing variation in depth and active erosive mechanisms; V2 has the shortest length, the widest cross-sections and the most significant average depths, with mass movements along almost its entire length. V3 has the greatest length, lowest depth and eroded volume because of less intense mass movements and more stable side walls. Even though various factors interfere with erosion mechanisms and the shape of gullies, the type of soil material proved to be a determining factor in the erosion mechanisms. Sandy materials proved to be more susceptible to mass movements, vertical development, and the concentration of faults and fractures, while predominantly clayey materials proved to be more cohesive and resistant to erosion, especially subsurface erosion, resulting in less occurrence of mass movements. The results presented in this work help to understand the accelerated erosion processes in the Pampa biome in Southern Brazil, elucidating the main factors that influence the shape and expansion of gullies, which is extremely important for determining effective conservation practices.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 12","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/esp.70166","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145102139","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exploiting GPS and RFID field data to validate numerical modelling of large wood transport in the Tagliamento River (Italy)","authors":"Wafae Ennouini,&nbsp;Elisabetta Persi,&nbsp;Gabriella Petaccia,&nbsp;Diego Ravazzolo,&nbsp;Lorenzo Picco,&nbsp;Luca Mao,&nbsp;Stefano Sibilla","doi":"10.1002/esp.70163","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70163","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This study evaluates the reliability of the ORSA2D_WT model, a Eulerian–Lagrangian model, in simulating large wood (LW) transport in the Tagliamento River. The model implements a literature strategy to account for sliding and rolling entrainment modes, besides floating. Overall, the model demonstrated an acceptable level of accuracy in replicating LW entrainment with a successful prediction of the behaviour of 8 out of 11 entrained logs, and 29 out of 37 stable logs were observed during field surveys. The findings are based on a limited number of comparisons, including 36 logs in the Cornino reach and 12 in the Flagogna reach, with only 2 GPS trajectories available, emphasising the exploratory nature of the study and the preliminary validation of the model. While the model effectively predicted LW dynamics under simplified conditions, discrepancies in trajectories near islands and areas of complex flow dynamics highlighted challenges in capturing intricate LW transport. Sensitivity analysis revealed the significant influence of wood density on LW transport, with wet density (WD) conditions showing notable deviations from the observed data. These findings emphasise the complex interplay among density, buoyancy, and hydrodynamic forces, underscoring the need for precise density estimates in LW transport modelling. Additionally, the initial orientation of logs was found to significantly affect transport dynamics, with logs aligned parallel to the flow experiencing longer displacements, while perpendicular or oblique orientations increased hydrodynamic forces, anticipating entrainment, and also fostered early deposition because of the higher interaction with the riverbanks. The model displayed an overestimation of LW mobility, compared to field surveys observations. This limitation highlights the need for a more realistic representation of log interactions, partial burial and structural features such as root wads and branches. To enhance the model's accuracy and reliability, future improvements should focus on better representing wood accumulations and partial burial, as well as optimising computational efficiency. These advancements will enable more comprehensive analyses and improve the model's applicability and robustness for real-world scenarios.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 12","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/esp.70163","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145102140","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Is a climate signal detectable using cosmogenic data and coarse-resolution digital topography in fluvially dominated landscapes?","authors":"Chenchao Xu,&nbsp;Rong Yang,&nbsp;Sean F. Gallen","doi":"10.1002/esp.70164","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70164","url":null,"abstract":"<p>While the influence of climate on landscapes is conceptually intuitive, quantifying it remains challenging due to the myriad of ways earth surface processes respond to climate. In this study, we investigate if and how climate impacts fluvial relief and hillslope morphology by examining the relationship between basin average cosmogenic ¹⁰Be-derived erosion rates and basin average topographic metrics across climatic gradients in the Bhutan Himalaya. We selected this region because it is an ideal natural laboratory for assessing climate controls on landscapes, with large precipitation variations, minimal lithologic differences and extensive existing datasets. Our findings suggest that increasing precipitation may drive several trends: (1) nonlinearity between erosion rate and fluvial metrics (k_snQ) increases, (2) the threshold hillslope gradient declines and (3) the characteristic hillslope length increases. Although these trends are weak and subject to considerable uncertainty, the subtle variations still conform with a conceptual model where wetter climates promote mass movement, extend hillslope length and reduce mountain relief as indicated by elevated nonlinearity between fluvial relief and erosion rate in wetter regions. This consistency suggests that more carefully crafted data or experimental designs offer the hope of quantifying climate's role in landscape form. Our study provides valuable insights for future research on sampling strategies and data analysis aimed at extracting climatic signals from observational datasets.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 12","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1002/esp.70164","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145102002","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Sundial: A method for inferring image acquisition time from shadow orientation","authors":"Inhyeok Bae,&nbsp;Carl J. Legleiter,&nbsp;Elowyn M. Yager","doi":"10.1002/esp.70157","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.70157","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Aerial photography and satellite imagery can be used to characterize landscape change over time and help to understand how these changes are related to climate and hydrology. Publicly available optical imagery from sources such as the United States National Agricultural Imagery Program (NAIP) is particularly valuable in this context due to its high temporal and spatial resolution. However, the exact time an image was acquired is often unknown, which complicates, if not precludes, linking images with other types of high temporal resolution data, such as streamflow records. In this letter, we propose a ‘sundial method’ to infer image acquisition time from shadow orientation. This approach involves measuring the direction of a shadow on the image and using solar geometry calculated for the known image date and location to infer the former sun position. Time estimates for 16 Worldview satellite and six NAIP aerial images based on 407 independent measurements of shadow orientation demonstrate the sundial method had an error of 2.1 ± 3.4 min, indicating that image acquisition times can be inferred with a high degree of accuracy and precision. Sensitivity analyses confirm the robustness of the method across different object types, shadow lengths, and solar zenith angles, while also providing practical guidelines regarding the number of measurements required and errors associated with uncertainty in the image date.</p>","PeriodicalId":11408,"journal":{"name":"Earth Surface Processes and Landforms","volume":"50 12","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2025-09-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145102003","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}