Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews最新文献

{"title":"Systematic review and meta-analysis: Impact of unipolar depression on P300 amplitude and latency","authors":"Nicholas J. Santopetro ,&nbsp;Brittney Thompson ,&nbsp;Andrew Garron ,&nbsp;Lauren Keith ,&nbsp;C.J. Brush ,&nbsp;Brad Schmidt ,&nbsp;Greg Hajcak","doi":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106230","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106230","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Depression is characterized by impairments of cognitive systems such as significant deficits in attention, memory, and cognitive control. The P300 (or P3) event-related potential (ERP) component has been extensively investigated over the past four decades to elucidate the underpinnings of these cognitive dysfunctions. Many studies have observed reduced P300 amplitude and prolonged P300 latency in individuals experiencing depression. The current study provides a comprehensive systematic quantitative review (i.e., meta-analysis) of the depression and P300 literature from 1981 to 2023 employing PubMed and ProQuest databases. Included articles quantitatively measured depression and P300 amplitude or latency. In total, 127 studies (total <em>N</em> = 12,722) comprised the current analyses (i.e., 116 examining P300 amplitude and 51 examining P300 latency), resulting in 601 effect sizes (i.e., 464 depression and P300 amplitude; 137 depression and P300 latency). Robust variance meta-regression results revealed a small significant negative effect size (<em>r</em> = -.15) between P300 amplitude and depression even after correcting for publication bias. There was a similar small significant positive effect size (<em>r</em> = .15) between P300 latency and depression. Findings from moderator analyses indicated that stimulus modality, medication use, and age impacted the P300 amplitude and depression effect size; no moderators of the P300 latency and depression relationship were observed. Regarding limitations, we did not exhaustively test all possible factors that may impact P300 and depression association. The current quantitative review confirms significant differences in P300 (both amplitude and latency) attributed to cognitive dysfunctions common in depression as well as guides future study designs and methodological approaches.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56105,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews","volume":"175 ","pages":"Article 106230"},"PeriodicalIF":7.5,"publicationDate":"2025-05-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144144552","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Mechanistic and translational insights from preclinical cocaine choice procedures on the economic substitutability of cocaine and nondrug reinforcers","authors":"Madison M. Marcus ,&nbsp;Matthew L. Banks","doi":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106217","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106217","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Substance use disorders are increasingly being conceptualized as behavioral misallocation disorders; however, the neurobiological determinants of this behavioral misallocation are poorly understood. Cocaine use disorder (CUD) develops as a result of behavior being disproportionally directed towards the procurement and use of cocaine at the expense of behaviors maintained by more adaptive, nondrug reinforcers (i.e., job, family). Preclinical cocaine-vs-nondrug reinforcer choice procedures are uniquely positioned to 1) elucidate the biological mechanisms of drug and nondrug reinforcement and 2) inform the development of effective pharmacological and behavioral CUD therapies. Accordingly, this review addresses the existing preclinical literature regarding the economic substitutability and mesolimbic dopaminergic mechanisms underlying cocaine self-administration in the context of three different concurrently available nondrug reinforcers: food, social interaction, and electric foot shock (a negative reinforcer). The manuscript focuses on how the existing cocaine-vs-nondrug reinforcer choice literature guides future research directions to facilitate advances in understanding of CUD from both a neuroscience and translational research perspective.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56105,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews","volume":"175 ","pages":"Article 106217"},"PeriodicalIF":7.5,"publicationDate":"2025-05-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144133336","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The eyes have it: Neurobiological roots, developmental trajectories, and social significance of mutual gaze in early parent-infant interactions","authors":"Serena Micheletti ,&nbsp;Lorenzo Romagnoli ,&nbsp;Erika Loi ,&nbsp;Nicoletta Cusano ,&nbsp;Elisa Fazzi","doi":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106220","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106220","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Mutual Gaze (MG) plays a crucial role in early interactions, yet there is no clear terminological or conceptual definition, highlighting the need for consensus on its onset, development, and clinical implications. This review aims to provide new insights into the extent and the way in which MG develops during early mother-infant interactions, both typically and atypically, and how it may be associated with the child's future social, cognitive, and behavioral development. A PICO format was employed, a systematic literature search was conducted, and 28 studies were selected for this review. These studies varied in their terminological definitions of MG, sample sizes, participants' characteristics, and methodologies. Results were analyzed through thematic analysis, leading to the identification of four main themes: neuro-biological correlates of MG, developmental modifications in MG during the first year of life, the involvement of MG in social interaction, and MG in atypical neurodevelopment. The findings showed that MG is regulated by underlying neuro-biological processes, leading to specific behavioral and interactive modalities, which evolve over time during the first year and are positively associated with attentional control and emotional self-regulation. Additionally, MG exhibits distinct behavioral characteristics in certain neurodevelopmental conditions, such as preterm infants and those with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), and may serve as a potential behavioral marker of ASD in infants older than 6 months, although further data are needed to draw definitive conclusions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56105,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews","volume":"175 ","pages":"Article 106220"},"PeriodicalIF":7.5,"publicationDate":"2025-05-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144133338","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The impact of stress on fear memory retention: A meta-analysis of rodent fear conditioning studies","authors":"Giulia Federica Mancini ,&nbsp;Eleonora Blasi ,&nbsp;Enrico Marchetta ,&nbsp;Maria Morena ,&nbsp;Marta Borgi ,&nbsp;Patrizia Campolongo","doi":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106221","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106221","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Pavlovian fear conditioning is a widely used behavioural task for studying fear memory in rodents. During conditioning, rodents learn to associate a conditioned stimulus (<em>e.g.</em>, context or tone; contextual or auditory fear conditioning, CFC or AFC, respectively) with an aversive one (<em>e.g.</em>, footshock), resulting in a conditioned fear response. Fear memory retention is assessed thorough freezing behaviour, a species-specific defensive reaction, observed during exposure to the conditioned stimulus alone. Fear memory is influenced by sex and stress, with stress exposure prior to conditioning potentially inducing maladaptive fear responses. This meta-analysis examines how pre-conditioning stress exposure modulates memory retention in rodents. Across N = 94 studies included, we analyzed freezing behaviour based on several factors: type of paradigm (CFC vs AFC), species (rat vs mouse), sex (male vs female), stress type (physical vs pharmacological vs psychological vs combination of two or more stressors type), stress duration (acute or chronic), stress timing (prenatal vs early postnatal vs adolescence vs adulthood). The results indicate that stress significantly enhances contextual conditioned freezing behaviour. Stress-induced effects in CFC models vary across species but are not sex-specific. Additionally, these effects are influenced by stress-related factors. These findings highlight the importance of considering multiple variables when studying stress and fear memory processes, offering valuable insights for improving clinical approaches to fear memory-related diseases (<em>e.g.</em>, post-traumatic stress disorder).</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56105,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews","volume":"175 ","pages":"Article 106221"},"PeriodicalIF":7.5,"publicationDate":"2025-05-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144116625","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exploring preterm birth and low birth weight as environmental sensitivity factors: A scoping review of socio-emotional and cognitive developmental outcomes","authors":"F. Lionetti ,&nbsp;A. Sperati ,&nbsp;M. Spinelli ,&nbsp;A. Dellagiulia ,&nbsp;M. Fasolo ,&nbsp;M. Pluess","doi":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106216","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106216","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Perinatal adversities, such as preterm birth and low birth weight, have traditionally been viewed as vulnerability factors. However, emerging evidence suggests that these conditions may also increase sensitivity to environmental exposures in a for-better-and-for-worse manner, consistent with the concept of Environmental Sensitivity (ES) and Differential Susceptibility theory. This scoping review examines whether preterm birth and low birth weight function as ES factors for socio-emotional and cognitive outcomes. We reviewed 134 studies published up to June 2024, identifying 20 that explored the interplay between birth condition and postnatal environmental variables. Evidence was mixed across Differential Susceptibility, Vantage Sensitivity, and Dual-risk models. Differential Susceptibility was more frequently observed in studies using observational methods and assessing the environment and outcomes early in life, while Dual-risk effects were often reported in studies relying on parent-report. Only a few studies identified Vantage Sensitivity, and these were primarily in samples of moderately preterm children. Future research leveraging secondary datasets and incorporating broader parental and infant variables—such as prenatal stress and infant temperament—could clarify the conditions under which perinatal adversities predict heightened environmental sensitivity. Such insights may inform tailored interventions aimed at supporting families facing preterm birth and low birth weight, promoting both recovery and flourishing developmental outcomes</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56105,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews","volume":"175 ","pages":"Article 106216"},"PeriodicalIF":7.5,"publicationDate":"2025-05-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144124296","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Insulin resistance: The role in comorbid type 2 diabetes mellitus and depression","authors":"Jia Yao ,&nbsp;Chang-qing Zhu ,&nbsp;Yan Sun ,&nbsp;Yi-wen Huang ,&nbsp;Qing-hua Li ,&nbsp;Hui-min Liao ,&nbsp;Xue-jian Deng ,&nbsp;Wan-mei Li","doi":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106218","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106218","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;div&gt;&lt;div&gt;Insulin resistance (IR) plays a significant role in the pathophysiology of comorbid type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) and depression (CDD) through multifaceted mechanisms, including dysregulation of insulin signaling (both central and peripheral), neuroendocrine disturbances (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysfunction and monoaminergic neurotransmission impairment), chronic inflammation, oxidative stress, disruption of the microbiota-gut-brain axis, reduced brain-derived neurotrophic factor levels, and altered synaptic plasticity. These IR-related pathways may predispose individuals to depressive symptoms or exacerbate existing mood disorders. A comprehensive understanding of these mechanisms is critical for developing integrated therapeutic strategies that concurrently target metabolic and psychiatric dysfunction. Antidepressant medications exhibit divergent effects on glucose metabolism. Tricyclic antidepressants, particularly amitriptyline and nortriptyline, worsen metabolic profiles by exacerbating IR, promoting weight gain, and inducing hyperglycemia, thereby increasing diabetes risk with prolonged use. Consequently, tricyclic antidepressants should be avoided in metabolically vulnerable populations unless alternatives are unavailable. Mirtazapine presents a paradoxical profile—while its appetite-stimulating effects often lead to weight gain (a known IR risk factor), some evidence suggests potential β-cell function preservation, necessitating cautious use of mirtazapine in individuals with metabolic syndrome. Among selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors, fluoxetine and escitalopram demonstrate favorable metabolic effects, including improved insulin sensitivity and glycemic control, though hypoglycemia risk (particularly with concomitant sulfonylureas) warrants monitoring. Bupropion, a norepinephrine-dopamine reuptake inhibitor, uniquely promotes weight loss and enhances glycemic control, making it a preferred option for depression comorbid with obesity or T2DM. Agomelatine, with its neutral metabolic profile and circadian rhythm-modulating properties, represents a safer alternative for patients with metabolic concerns. Concurrently, certain antidiabetic agents show promise in managing depression. Metformin and sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors may be prioritized for diabetic patients at risk for depression, while glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists appear particularly beneficial for obesity-related mood disturbances. Thiazolidinediones offer value in treatment-resistant cases, whereas insulin secretagogues should be used cautiously in psychiatrically vulnerable individuals. Future research should prioritize three key directions: (1) Mechanistic investigations using advanced neuroimaging to elucidate the contribution of IR to depressive phenotypes and evaluate novel interventions (such as intranasal insulin); (2) Precision medicine approaches incorporating biomarkers, including genetic polymorphisms, inflammatory m","PeriodicalId":56105,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews","volume":"175 ","pages":"Article 106218"},"PeriodicalIF":7.5,"publicationDate":"2025-05-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144129558","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Unpacking the link between hormonal fluctuations and risk-taking: A systematic review and meta-analysis","authors":"Bo Yuan ,&nbsp;Dongyu Gao ,&nbsp;Rongjun Yu ,&nbsp;Yi Huang","doi":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106215","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106215","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Previous studies have suggested that hormonal fluctuations, specifically in testosterone, estradiol, and cortisol, may impact reward-related brain functioning and risk-taking behaviors. However, findings in this area have been inconsistent and sometimes contradictory. The current study aimed to conduct a meta-analysis to investigate the effects of both endogenous and exogenous testosterone, estradiol, and cortisol on risk-taking behaviors, as well as identify potential moderators of these effects. This meta-analysis systematically reviewed studies published up to February 20, 2025, encompassing both correlational and experimental designs. After screening 2544 records, 98 studies met inclusion criteria, yielding 162 effect sizes involving 8676 participants for testosterone, 55 effect sizes from 2510 participants for estradiol, and 66 effect sizes from 3933 participants for cortisol. Using the random-effects Bayesian meta-analytic models, our results showed that both testosterone and estradiol had a significant, albeit modest, effect on increasing risk-taking behaviors (testosterone: Hedge’s <em>g</em> = 0.22; 95 % CrI [0.14, 0.30]; estradiol: Hedge’s <em>g</em> = 0.20; 95 % CrI [0.03, 0.37]). However, cortisol was not associated with changes in risk-taking (Hedge’s <em>g</em> = −0.04; 95 % CrI [−0.17, 0.09]). Further analysis indicated that the effects of testosterone were moderated by the study design (experimental vs. correlational), the behavior type (sensation seeking vs. risk-taking vs. impulsivity), the measurement type of risky behavior (self-report vs. behavioral) and the measurement type of hormone (saliva vs. serum), but these moderators had no significant impact on the estradiol effect. Despite the potential for publication bias, no evidence of selective reporting (e.g. <em>p</em>-hacking) was found in the <em>p</em>-curve analysis. In summary, testosterone and estradiol may influence risk-taking behaviors, although further randomized controlled trials (RCTs) with larger sample sizes are necessary to confirm these findings.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56105,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews","volume":"175 ","pages":"Article 106215"},"PeriodicalIF":7.5,"publicationDate":"2025-05-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144129574","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Intelligence, brain structure, dendrites, and genes: Genetic, epigenetic and the underlying of the quadruple helix complexity","authors":"Tam T Quach ,&nbsp;Anne-Marie Duchemin","doi":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106212","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106212","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Intelligence can be referred to as the mental ability to learn, comprehend abstract concepts, and solve complex problems. Twin and adoption studies have provided insights into the influence of the familial environment and highlighted the importance of heritability in the development of cognition. Detecting the relative contribution of brain areas, neuronal structures, and connectomes has brought some understanding on how various brain areas, white/gray matter structures and neuronal connectivity process information and contribute to intelligence. Using histological, anatomical, electrophysiological, neuropsychological, neuro-imaging and molecular biology methods, several key concepts have emerged: 1) the parietofrontal-hippocampal integrations probably constitute a substrate for smart behavior, 2) neuronal activity results in structural plasticity of dendritic branches responsible for information transfer, critical for learning and memory, 3) intelligent people process information efficiently, 4) the environment triggers mnemonic epigenomic programs (via dynamic regulation of chromatin accessibility, DNA methylation, loop interruption/formation and histone modification) conferring cognitive phenotypes throughout life, and 5) single/double DNA breaks are prominent in human brain disorders associated with cognitive impairment including Alzheimer’s disease and schizophrenia. Along with these observations, molecular/cellular/biological studies have identified sets of specific genes associated with higher scores on intelligence tests. Interestingly, many of these genes are associated with dendritogenesis. Because dendrite structure/function is involved in cognition, the control of dendrite genesis/maintenance may be critical for understanding the landscape of general/specific cognitive ability and new pathways for therapeutic approaches.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56105,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews","volume":"175 ","pages":"Article 106212"},"PeriodicalIF":7.5,"publicationDate":"2025-05-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144103330","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"How do brain regions specialised for concrete and abstract concepts align with functional brain networks? A neuroimaging meta-analysis","authors":"Paul Hoffman,&nbsp;Matthew Bair","doi":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106214","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106214","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Identifying the brain regions that process concrete and abstract concepts is key to understanding the neural architecture of thought, memory and language. We review current theories of concreteness effects and test their neural predictions in a meta-analysis of 72 neuroimaging studies (1400 participants). Our analysis includes more than twice as many studies as previous meta-analyses, allowing for a more sensitive mapping of these effects across the brain. We also conducted a quantitative assessment of the degree to which concreteness effects aligned with a range of large-scale functional brain networks. Our results suggest that concrete and abstract concepts vary both in the information-processing modalities they engage and in the demands they place on cognitive control processes. Abstract concepts preferentially activated networks for social cognition (particularly for sentences), language and semantic control (particularly when presented as single words). Concrete concepts preferentially activated action processing regions when presented in sentences, though we found no evidence that they activated visual networks. Specialisation for both concept types was present in different parts of the default mode network (DMN), with effects dissociating along a social-spatial axis. Concrete concepts generated greater activation in a medial temporal DMN component, implicated in constructing mental models of spatial contexts and scenes. In contrast, abstract concepts showed greater activation in frontotemporal DMN regions involved in social and language processing. These results align with prior claims that generating models of situations and events is a core DMN function and indicate specialisation within DMN for different aspects of these models.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56105,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews","volume":"174 ","pages":"Article 106214"},"PeriodicalIF":7.5,"publicationDate":"2025-05-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144071898","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Critical intelligence: Computing defensive behaviour","authors":"Jules Brochard ,&nbsp;Peter Dayan ,&nbsp;Dominik R. Bach","doi":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106213","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.neubiorev.2025.106213","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Characterising the mechanisms underlying naturalistic defensive behavior remains a significant challenge. While substantial progress has been made in unravelling the neural basis of tightly constrained behaviors, a critical gap persists in our comprehension of the circuits that implement algorithms capable of generating the diverse defensive responses observed outside experimental restrictions. Recent advancements in neuroscience technology now allow for an unprecedented examination of naturalistic behaviour. To help provide a theoretical grounding for this nascent experimental programme, we summarise the main computational and statistical challenges of defensive decision making, encapsulated in the concept of critical intelligence. Next, drawing from an extensive literature in biology, machine learning, and decision theory, we explore a range of candidate solutions to these challenges. While the proposed solutions offer insights into potential adaptive strategies, they also present inherent trade-offs and limitations in their applicability across different biological contexts. Ultimately, we propose series of experiments designed to differentiate between these candidate solutions, providing a roadmap for future investigations into the fundamental defensive algorithms utilized by biological agents and their neural implementation. Thus, our work aims to provide a roadmap towards broader understanding of how complex defensive behaviors are orchestrated in the brain, with implications for both neuroscience research and the development of more sophisticated artificial intelligence systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":56105,"journal":{"name":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews","volume":"174 ","pages":"Article 106213"},"PeriodicalIF":7.5,"publicationDate":"2025-05-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144095869","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}