Cognition & Emotion最新文献_第3页

What is a compassionate face? Avoided negative affect explains differences between U.S. Americans and Chinese. 什么是富有同情心的面孔？避免负面情绪解释了美国人和中国人之间的差异。

IF 2.6 3区心理学

Cognition & Emotion Pub Date : 2025-05-01 Epub Date: 2024-08-23 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2385708

Jia Hui Seow, Hongfei Du, Birgit Koopmann-Holm

{"title":"What is a compassionate face? Avoided negative affect explains differences between U.S. Americans and Chinese.","authors":"Jia Hui Seow, Hongfei Du, Birgit Koopmann-Holm","doi":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2385708","DOIUrl":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2385708","url":null,"abstract":"While a compassionate face for Germans mirrors others' suffering, for U.S. Americans, a compassionate face is one that expresses a slight smile, partly because U.S. Americans want to avoid feeling negative (\"avoided negative affect\"; ANA) more than do Germans. The present work examines what people in a non-WEIRD (i.e. Chinese) cultural context think a compassionate face looks like. Additionally, it investigates whether an individually-measured cultural variable (i.e. ANA) can explain differences in conceptualisations of compassion between Chinese and U.S. Americans. Participants in China and the U.S. selected the face that most resembles a compassionate face in a reverse correlation task and completed a measure of ANA. As predicted, Chinese mental representations of a compassionate face included more sadness and less happiness compared to U.S. American mental representations of a compassionate face, and Chinese participants wanted to avoid feeling negative less than did U.S. Americans. Finally, ANA mediated the cultural differences in conceptualisations of compassion. We discuss how ANA and conceptualisations of compassion might be related to how people view the experience versus the expression of different emotions. This work has important implications for therapeutic settings and the meaning of compassion in an increasingly globalised and connected world.","PeriodicalId":48412,"journal":{"name":"Cognition & Emotion","volume":" ","pages":"704-713"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142037376","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Social anxiety modulating early processing for social threat words: an ERP study. 社交焦虑调节社交威胁词的早期处理：ERP 研究。

IF 2.6 3区心理学

Cognition & Emotion Pub Date : 2025-05-01 Epub Date: 2024-07-24 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2381660

Fei Yin, Feng Si, Shuhui Huo, Zhengjun Wang, Haibo Yang, Xiwu Zhao, Jianqin Cao

{"title":"Social anxiety modulating early processing for social threat words: an ERP study.","authors":"Fei Yin, Feng Si, Shuhui Huo, Zhengjun Wang, Haibo Yang, Xiwu Zhao, Jianqin Cao","doi":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2381660","DOIUrl":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2381660","url":null,"abstract":"Even though some recent research revealed individuals with HSA typically display enhanced processing in the early stages of emotional information processing due to hypervigilance and vulnerability to negative stimuli, it is still unclear whether social anxiety affects the time course underlying processing bias for emotional stimuli. Therefore, the present study aimed to explore the early stage of processing social threat stimuli in high social anxiety (HSA) individuals by recording RTs and EEG data in the emotional Stroop task. Behavioral data showed that the HSA group responded to the threat words faster than neutral words (i.e. negative bias), but no emotional effects in the low social anxiety (LSA) group. Although the P1 component did not show any early effects, ERP data exhibited an enhanced N170 for HSA than for LSA groups. Threat words elicited larger N170 than neutral words in the LSA group only; this emotion effect was not evident in the HSA group. These findings indicated that social anxiety modulates early processing for social threat words. This study revealed the neural mechanisms underlying early emotional processing in individuals with social anxiety, providing insights for the evaluation and intervention of social anxiety.","PeriodicalId":48412,"journal":{"name":"Cognition & Emotion","volume":" ","pages":"603-613"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141753137","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Contamination in Trypophobia: investigating the role of disgust. 恐 Trypophobia 中的污染：研究厌恶的作用。

IF 2.6 3区心理学

Cognition & Emotion Pub Date : 2025-05-01 Epub Date: 2024-08-09 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2389388

Simone Hain, Richard J Stevenson

{"title":"Contamination in Trypophobia: investigating the role of disgust.","authors":"Simone Hain, Richard J Stevenson","doi":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2389388","DOIUrl":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2389388","url":null,"abstract":"Trypophobia is a relatively common aversion to clusters of holes. There is no consensus yet on which emotions are involved in Trypophobia nor in its functional utility. This report investigates the role of disgust using contamination tasks in two studies, which contrast people with an aversion to trypophobic stimuli to those without. In Study 1, participants reported their emotional reactions to imagined contamination of trypophobic images. In Study 2, participants evaluated physically present trypophobic, disgust, fear, and control stimuli. The capacity of these stimuli to contaminate other objects was established using a chain of contagion task. Across both studies, contamination was present, however, only those with an aversion to trypophobic stimuli evidenced contamination on the chain of contagion task, a hallmark of disgust responding. Elevated levels were not only reported for disgust, but also alongside fear/anxiety. Participant reports suggest an underlying disease avoidance mechanism in Trypophobia, with trypophobic participants demonstrating an exaggerated response to such stimuli involving disgust and fear/anxiety, which is also seen in small animal phobia, BII, and C-OCD. Implications, particularly for treatment are discussed.","PeriodicalId":48412,"journal":{"name":"Cognition & Emotion","volume":" ","pages":"635-648"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141908049","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Ambiguity potentiates effects of loneliness on feelings of rejection. 模糊性会增强孤独感对被排斥感的影响。

IF 2.6 3区心理学

Cognition & Emotion Pub Date : 2025-05-01 Epub Date: 2024-08-02 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2385006

Anita Restrepo, Karen E Smith, Emily M Silver, Greg Norman

{"title":"Ambiguity potentiates effects of loneliness on feelings of rejection.","authors":"Anita Restrepo, Karen E Smith, Emily M Silver, Greg Norman","doi":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2385006","DOIUrl":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2385006","url":null,"abstract":"For social species, having strong and high-quality social relationships is an important safety cue. Loneliness occurs when an individual perceives they have insufficient relationships resulting in feelings of lack of safety. States of perceived unsafety are linked to an increased tendency to construe ambiguous information - information lacking a unique clear interpretation - as threatening. Here, we explore whether the ambiguity of social cues of interpersonal rejection moderates effects of loneliness on feelings of rejection while undergoing social exclusion. Data were collected in 2021; 144 adults completed a progressive social exclusion paradigm where they were randomly assigned to be equally included, excluded, or over-included. Social exclusion/inclusion cues became more pronounced over the course of multiple rounds of a ball-tossing game (Cyberball) resulting in a scenario where ambiguity was highest in earlier rounds and decreased over time. Participants reported feelings of loneliness prior to the task and feelings of rejection throughout the task. Results demonstrated that higher loneliness predicted increased feelings of rejection regardless of exclusion condition. Notably, this positive relationship was strongest during earlier rounds when social cues were most ambiguous. These findings contribute to our understanding of how loneliness modulates social perception to enable organisms to adequately adapt to changing circumstances.","PeriodicalId":48412,"journal":{"name":"Cognition & Emotion","volume":" ","pages":"693-703"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141876405","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

How young children use manifest emotions and dominance cues to understand social rules: a registered report. 幼儿如何利用显性情绪和支配线索理解社会规则：注册报告。

IF 2.6 3区心理学

Cognition & Emotion Pub Date : 2025-05-01 Epub Date: 2024-07-28 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2384140

Gökhan Gönül, Fabrice Clément

{"title":"How young children use manifest emotions and dominance cues to understand social rules: a registered report.","authors":"Gökhan Gönül, Fabrice Clément","doi":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2384140","DOIUrl":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2384140","url":null,"abstract":"Given the complexity of human social life, it is astonishing to observe how quickly children adapt to their social environment. To be accepted by the other members, it is crucial to understand and follow the rules and norms shared by the group. How and from whom do young children learn these social rules? In the experiments, based on the crucial role of affective social learning and dominance hierarchies in simple rule understanding, we showed 15-to-23-month-olds and 3-to-5-year-old children videos where the agents' body size and affective cues were manipulated. In the dominant rule-maker condition, when a smaller protagonist puts an object in one location, a bigger agent reacts with a positive reaction; on the contrary, when the smaller protagonist puts an object in another location, the bigger agent displays a negative reaction. In the subordinate rule-maker condition, the roles are shifted but the agents differ. Toddlers expect the protagonist to follow the rules (based on anticipatory looks), independent of the dominant status of the rule-making agent. Three-to-five-year-old pre-schoolers overall perform at the chance level but expect the protagonist to disobey a rule in the first trial, and obey the rule in the second trial if the rule-maker is dominant.","PeriodicalId":48412,"journal":{"name":"Cognition & Emotion","volume":" ","pages":"485-504"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141789536","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Why do people engage with the suffering of strangers? Exploring epistemic, eudaimonic, social, and affective motives. 为什么人们会关注陌生人的痛苦？探索认识动机、幸福动机、社会动机和情感动机。

IF 2.6 3区心理学

Cognition & Emotion Pub Date : 2025-05-01 Epub Date: 2024-08-05 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2385691

Anastassia Vivanco Carlevari, Suzanne Oosterwijk, Gerben A van Kleef

{"title":"Why do people engage with the suffering of strangers? Exploring epistemic, eudaimonic, social, and affective motives.","authors":"Anastassia Vivanco Carlevari, Suzanne Oosterwijk, Gerben A van Kleef","doi":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2385691","DOIUrl":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2385691","url":null,"abstract":"Reading violent stories or watching a war documentary are examples in which people voluntarily engage with the suffering of others whom they do not know. Using a mixed-methods approach, we investigated why people make these decisions, while also mapping the characteristics of strangers' suffering to gain a rich understanding. In Study 1 (N = 247), participants described situations of suffering and their reasons to engage with it. Using qualitative thematic analysis, we developed a typology of the stranger (who), the situation (what), the source (how), and the reason(s) for engaging with the situation (why). We categorised the motives into four overarching themes - epistemic, eudaimonic, social, and affective - reflecting diversity in the perceived functionality of engaging with a stranger's suffering. Next, we tested the robustness of the identified motives in a quantitative study. In Study 2, participants (N = 250) recalled a situation in which they engaged with the suffering of a stranger and indicated their endorsement with a variety of possible motives. Largely mirroring Study 1, Study 2 participants engaged to acquire knowledge, for personal and social utility, and to feel positive and negative emotions. We discuss implications for understanding the exploration of human suffering as a motivated phenomenon.","PeriodicalId":48412,"journal":{"name":"Cognition & Emotion","volume":" ","pages":"614-634"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141890585","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

The association between negative emotion differentiation and emotion regulation flexibility in daily life. 日常生活中负面情绪分化与情绪调节灵活性之间的关联。

IF 2.6 3区心理学

Cognition & Emotion Pub Date : 2025-05-01 Epub Date: 2024-07-22 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2381079

Longyue Liao, Keqin Zhang, Ying Zhou, Junsheng Liu

{"title":"The association between negative emotion differentiation and emotion regulation flexibility in daily life.","authors":"Longyue Liao, Keqin Zhang, Ying Zhou, Junsheng Liu","doi":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2381079","DOIUrl":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2381079","url":null,"abstract":"Emotion differentiation emphasises labelling emotional experiences in a precise and context-sensitive way. Negative emotion differentiation (NED) has been found to be associated with mental health, where emotion regulation (ER) may act as a pathway. The current study aims to explore the association between NED and flexible ER implementation in daily life. Specifically, we examined how NED was associated with two aspects of ER flexibility: contextual synchrony and temporal ER variability. 101 college students (54% female; Mage = 20.24 years) reported their momentary emotions via a 7-day experience sampling protocol, and the intraclass correlation coefficients were calculated to reflect NED. In 10-day daily diaries, they also reported information about the most negative event during the day (i.e. event type, event intensity and ER goal) and how they regulated their emotions. The results revealed that individuals with high NED showed higher levels of synchrony between change in ER use and change in event type and ER goal. In addition, NED was positively associated with both within- and between-strategy variability in ER use. The results demonstrated that the ability to differentiate between negative emotions was related to higher ER flexibility, which shed new light on understanding the role of emotion differentiation in well-being.","PeriodicalId":48412,"journal":{"name":"Cognition & Emotion","volume":" ","pages":"590-602"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141735361","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Interpersonal emotion regulation and physiological synchrony: cognitive reappraisal versus expressive suppression. 人际情绪调节与生理同步：认知重评与表达抑制。

IF 2.6 3区心理学

Cognition & Emotion Pub Date : 2025-05-01 Epub Date: 2024-07-07 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2024.2371092

Yanmei Wang, Yinzhi Shi

{"title":"Interpersonal emotion regulation and physiological synchrony: cognitive reappraisal versus expressive suppression.","authors":"Yanmei Wang, Yinzhi Shi","doi":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2371092","DOIUrl":"10.1080/02699931.2024.2371092","url":null,"abstract":"The present study aimed to explore the effectiveness of two typical intrapersonal strategies (cognitive reappraisal, CR; expressive suppression, ES) on interpersonal emotion regulation (IER), and uncover the physiological synchrony pattern underlying this. A sample of 90 friend dyads (N = 180) was randomly assigned to the CR, the ES, or the control group. In each dyad, the target underwent a negative emotional task (induce sadness by recalling a negative event), and the regulator was assigned to implement the CR strategy, the ES strategy, or no action to down-regulate the targets' negative emotions. Self-reported results showed that compared to the control group, both CR and ES strategies decreased the targets' negative emotions, and increased the targets' positive emotions, indicating a successful IER effect. And the ECG results revealed that relative to the control condition, both CR and ES strategies evoked stronger physiological synchrony (heart rate synchrony and heart rate variation synchrony) during the emotion regulation stage of IER. Overall, these findings demonstrated the similar efﬁcacy of reappraisal and suppression strategies implemented by the regulators to improve the targets' negative emotions, and suggested that the physiological synchrony might have an important relational meaning during the IER process.","PeriodicalId":48412,"journal":{"name":"Cognition & Emotion","volume":" ","pages":"663-674"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141555673","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Decision-making, affective states, and self-efficacy of students in the high-stress situation of a 192 m bungee jump - a randomised crossover trial. 192米蹦极高压力情境下学生决策、情感状态和自我效能感的随机交叉试验

IF 2.6 3区心理学

Cognition & Emotion Pub Date : 2025-04-28 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2025.2496822

Felix Wachholz, Mavin Wilhelm, Anika Frühauf, Martin Niedermeier, Martin Kopp

{"title":"Decision-making, affective states, and self-efficacy of students in the high-stress situation of a 192 m bungee jump - a randomised crossover trial.","authors":"Felix Wachholz, Mavin Wilhelm, Anika Frühauf, Martin Niedermeier, Martin Kopp","doi":"10.1080/02699931.2025.2496822","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2025.2496822","url":null,"abstract":"Decision-making involves rational and affective pathways, with high-stress potentially altering decision - making and affective states, alongside affecting behavioural variables. This study aims to analyze decision-making, affective states, and variables related to behaviour in a real-life high-stress scenario (bungee - jumping).Using a within-subject crossover-design, 19 participants (47% female, aged 23.0 ± 2.1 years) completed a 192 m bungee-jump and a 1 m control jump. Decision-making tests, affective states, and behavioural variables were assessed. Condition-by-time fully repeated measures analyses of variance were employed.Balloon Analogue Risk Task (BART) revealed significantly higher values pre - and post-bungee-jump compared to the control jump. Accuracy and average reaction time on the Go/No-Go task remained consistent across conditions and time points. Pre-action self-efficacy was significantly higher after the bungee - jump compared to the control jump. Affective valence demonstrated a significant condition-by-time interaction, presenting low values immediately before the bungee-jump.A high-stress situation impacted risk-taking but not inhibition in decision-making, associated with heightened arousal and affective valence. Anticipatory effects emerged significantly in decision-making and affective states. Furthermore, participants exhibited increased confidence in approaching subsequent tasks post - bungee - jump. Therefore, high-stress situations may enhance pre-action self-efficacy, although potential implications for riskier decision-making should be acknowledged.","PeriodicalId":48412,"journal":{"name":"Cognition & Emotion","volume":" ","pages":"1-11"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-04-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144051186","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Integration of negative emotions, empathy, and support for conciliatory policies in intractable conflicts. 在棘手的冲突中整合负面情绪、同理心和对和解政策的支持。

IF 2.6 3区心理学

Cognition & Emotion Pub Date : 2025-04-28 DOI: 10.1080/02699931.2025.2488985

Yael Ostrricher, Lara Ditrich, Kai Sassenberg, Yaniv Kanat-Maymon, Guy Roth

{"title":"Integration of negative emotions, empathy, and support for conciliatory policies in intractable conflicts.","authors":"Yael Ostrricher, Lara Ditrich, Kai Sassenberg, Yaniv Kanat-Maymon, Guy Roth","doi":"10.1080/02699931.2025.2488985","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/02699931.2025.2488985","url":null,"abstract":"Adaptive regulation of intense negative emotions appears crucial for reconciliation, as negative emotions often impede the resolution of intractable intergroup conflicts. Integrative emotion regulation (IER; actively taking an interest in one's own negative emotions) appears promising in this context, given previous findings of its links to empathy and support for conciliatory policies in the context of the Middle East conflict. However, prior work did not test whether these links hold when negative emotions related to the conflict (e.g. anger and fear) are elicited. We conducted two studies with Jewish-Israelis to test these links, focusing on participants' reactions to innocent Palestinians. In both studies, we measured IER, empathy (sympathy, perspective-taking), and support for conciliatory policies (humanitarian aid) and compared a negative emotion condition (Study 1: fear, N = 240; Study 2: anger, N = 293) to a neutral control condition. Our findings replicated the positive relations between IER, empathy, and support for conciliatory policies even when negative emotions were elicited. These findings are discussed in relation to prior research on emotion regulation in group contexts, including applications to conflict resolution.","PeriodicalId":48412,"journal":{"name":"Cognition & Emotion","volume":" ","pages":"1-15"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-04-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144021212","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0