Surface Science Reports最新文献

{"title":"Iron oxide surfaces","authors":"Gareth S. Parkinson","doi":"10.1016/j.surfrep.2016.02.001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfrep.2016.02.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p><span>The current status of knowledge regarding the surfaces of the iron oxides, magnetite (Fe</span><sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>), maghemite (γ-Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub><span>), haematite (α-Fe</span><sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub>), and wüstite (Fe<sub>1−<em>x</em></sub><span><span>O) is reviewed. The paper starts with a summary of applications where iron oxide surfaces play a major role, including corrosion, catalysis, spintronics, magnetic </span>nanoparticles<span><span><span><span> (MNPs), biomedicine, photoelectrochemical water splitting and groundwater remediation. The bulk structure and properties are then briefly presented; each compound is based on a close-packed anion lattice, with a different distribution and </span>oxidation state of the Fe cations in </span>interstitial sites. The bulk defect </span>chemistry is dominated by cation vacancies and interstitials (not oxygen vacancies) and this provides the context to understand iron oxide surfaces, which represent the front line in reduction and oxidation processes. Fe diffuses in and out from the bulk in response to the O</span></span><sub>2</sub> chemical potential, forming sometimes complex intermediate phases at the surface. For example, α-Fe<sub>2</sub>O<sub>3</sub> adopts Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>-like surfaces in reducing conditions, and Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub> adopts Fe<sub>1−<em>x</em></sub><span>O-like structures in further reducing conditions still. It is argued that known bulk defect structures are an excellent starting point in building models for iron oxide surfaces.</span></p><p>The atomic-scale structure of the low-index surfaces of iron oxides is the major focus of this review. Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub><span><span> is the most studied iron oxide in surface science<span>, primarily because its stability range corresponds nicely to the ultra-high vacuum environment. It is also an electrical conductor, which makes it straightforward to study with the most commonly used surface science methods such as photoemission<span> spectroscopies (XPS, UPS) and scanning tunneling microscopy (STM). The impact of the surfaces on the measurement of bulk properties such as </span></span></span>magnetism, the Verwey transition and the (predicted) half-metallicity is discussed.</span></p><p>The best understood iron oxide surface at present is probably Fe<sub>3</sub>O<sub>4</sub>(100); the structure is known with a high degree of precision and the major defects and properties are well characterised. A major factor in this is that a termination at the Fe<sub>oct</sub>–O plane can be reproducibly prepared by a variety of methods, as long as the surface is annealed in 10<sup>−7</sup>−10<sup>−5</sup> <!-->mbar O<sub>2</sub> in the final stage of preparation. Such straightforward preparation of a monophase termination is generally not the case for iron oxide surfaces. All available evidence suggests the oft-studied (√2×√2)R45° reconstruction results from a rearrangement of the cation l","PeriodicalId":434,"journal":{"name":"Surface Science Reports","volume":"71 1","pages":"Pages 272-365"},"PeriodicalIF":9.8,"publicationDate":"2016-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.surfrep.2016.02.001","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"1945446","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"化学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Vibrational and optical properties of MoS2: From monolayer to bulk","authors":"Alejandro Molina-Sánchez ,&nbsp;Kerstin Hummer ,&nbsp;Ludger Wirtz","doi":"10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.10.001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.10.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p><span>Molybdenum disulfide, MoS</span>₂, has recently gained considerable attention as a layered material where neighboring layers are only weakly interacting and can easily slide against each other. Therefore, mechanical exfoliation allows the fabrication of single and multi-layers and opens the possibility to generate atomically thin crystals with outstanding properties. In contrast to graphene, it has an optical gap of ~1.9<!--> <!-->eV. This makes it a prominent candidate for transistor and opto-electronic applications. Single-layer MoS₂ exhibits remarkably different physical properties compared to bulk MoS₂ due to the absence of interlayer hybridization. For instance, while the band gap of bulk and multi-layer MoS₂ is indirect, it becomes direct with decreasing number of layers.</p><p>In this review, we analyze from a theoretical point of view the electronic, optical, and vibrational properties of single-layer, few-layer and bulk MoS₂<span>. In particular, we focus on the effects of spin–orbit interaction, number of layers, and applied tensile strain<span> on the vibrational and optical properties. We examine the results obtained by different methodologies, mainly ab initio approaches. We also discuss which approximations are suitable for MoS</span></span>₂ and layered materials. The effect of external strain on the band gap of single-layer MoS₂<span><span><span> and the crossover from indirect to direct band gap is investigated. We analyze the excitonic effects on the absorption spectra. The main features, such as the double peak at the absorption threshold and the high-energy </span>exciton are presented. Furthermore, we report on the the </span>phonon dispersion relations of single-layer, few-layer and bulk MoS</span>₂. Based on the latter, we explain the behavior of the Raman-active <span><math><msub><mrow><mi>A</mi></mrow><mrow><mn>1</mn><mi>g</mi></mrow></msub></math></span> and <span><math><msubsup><mrow><mi>E</mi></mrow><mrow><mn>2</mn><mi>g</mi></mrow><mrow><mn>1</mn></mrow></msubsup></math></span><span> modes as a function of the number of layers. Finally, we compare theoretical and experimental results of Raman, photoluminescence, and optical-absorption spectroscopy.</span></p></div>","PeriodicalId":434,"journal":{"name":"Surface Science Reports","volume":"70 4","pages":"Pages 554-586"},"PeriodicalIF":9.8,"publicationDate":"2015-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.10.001","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"2424392","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"化学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Adsorption and self-assembly of bio-organic molecules at model surfaces: A route towards increased complexity","authors":"Dominique Costa ,&nbsp;Claire-Marie Pradier ,&nbsp;Frederik Tielens ,&nbsp;Letizia Savio","doi":"10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.10.002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.10.002","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Understanding the bio-physical–chemical interactions at nanostructured biointerfaces and the assembly mechanisms of so-called hybrid nano-composites is nowadays a key issue for nanoscience in view of the many possible applications foreseen.</p><p>The contribution of surface science in this field is noteworthy since, using a bottom-up approach, it allows the investigation of the fundamental processes at the basis of complex interfacial phenomena and thus it helps to unravel the elementary mechanisms governing them.</p><p>Nowadays it is well demonstrated that a wide variety of different molecular assemblies can form upon adsorption of small biomolecules at surfaces. The geometry of such self-organized structures can often be tuned by a careful control of the experimental conditions during the deposition process. Indeed an impressive number of studies exists (both experimental and – to a lesser extent – theoretical), which demonstrates the ability of molecular self-assembly to create different structural motifs in a more or less predictable manner, by tuning the molecular building blocks as well as the metallic substrate.</p><p>In this frame, amino acids and small peptides at surfaces are key, basic, systems to be studied. The amino acids structure is simple enough to serve as a model for the chemisorption of biofunctional molecules, but their adsorption at surfaces has applications in surface functionalization, in enantiospecific catalysis, biosensing, shape control of nanoparticles or in emerging fields such as “green” corrosion inhibition.</p><p>In this paper we review the most recent advances in this field. We shall start from the adsorption of amino acids at metal surfaces and we will evolve then in the direction of more complex systems, in the light of the latest improvements of surface science techniques and of computational methods. On one side, we will focus on amino acids adsorption at oxide surfaces, on the other on peptide adsorption both at metal and oxide substrates. Particular attention will be drawn to the added value provided by the combination of several experimental surface science techniques and to the precious contribution of advanced complementary computational methods to resolve the details of systems of increased complexity. Finally, some hints on experiments performed in presence of water and then characterized in UHV and on the related theoretical work will be presented. This is a further step towards a better approximation of real biological systems. However, since the methods employed are often not typical of surface science, this topic is not developed in detail.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":434,"journal":{"name":"Surface Science Reports","volume":"70 4","pages":"Pages 449-553"},"PeriodicalIF":9.8,"publicationDate":"2015-12-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.10.002","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"2187002","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"化学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Surface chemistry of porphyrins and phthalocyanines","authors":"J. Michael Gottfried","doi":"10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.04.001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.04.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>This review covers the surface chemistry of porphyrins, phthalocyanines, their metal complexes, and related compounds, with particular focus on chemical reactions at solid/vacuum interfaces. Porphyrins are not only important biomolecules, they also find, together with the artificial phthalocyanines, numerous technological and scientific applications, which often involve surface and interface related aspects. After a brief summary of fundamental properties of these molecules in the context of surface science, the following topics will be discussed: (1) Aspects of geometric structure, including self-assembly, conformation, mobility and manipulation of the adsorbed molecules. (2) Surface-related changes of the electronic structure and the magnetic properties. (3) The role of the metal center in the surface chemical bond. (4) On-surface coordination reactions, such as direct metalation and coordination of axial ligands. (5) The influence of axial ligands on the surface chemical bond and the magnetic properties.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":434,"journal":{"name":"Surface Science Reports","volume":"70 3","pages":"Pages 259-379"},"PeriodicalIF":9.8,"publicationDate":"2015-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.04.001","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"2484643","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"化学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Atomistic details of oxide surfaces and surface oxidation: the example of copper and its oxides","authors":"Chiara Gattinoni,&nbsp;Angelos Michaelides","doi":"10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.07.001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.07.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p><span><span>The oxidation and corrosion of metals are fundamental problems in materials science and technology that have been studied using a large variety of experimental and computational techniques. Here we review some of the recent studies that have led to significant advances in our atomic-level understanding of </span>copper oxide<span>, one of the most studied and best understood metal oxides. We show that a good atomistic understanding of the physical characteristics of cuprous (Cu</span></span>₂<span><span><span>O) and cupric (CuO) oxide and of some key processes of their formation has been obtained. Indeed, the growth of the oxide has been shown to be epitaxial with the surface and to proceed, in most cases, through the formation of oxide nano-islands which, with continuous oxygen exposure, grow and eventually coalesce. We also show how electronic structure calculations have become increasingly useful in helping to characterise the structures and </span>energetics of various Cu </span>oxide surfaces<span><span>. However a number of challenges remain. For example, it is not clear under which conditions the oxidation of copper in air at room temperature (known as native oxidation) leads to the formation of a cuprous </span>oxide film only, or also of a cupric overlayer. Moreover, the atomistic details of the nucleation of the oxide islands are still unknown. We close our review with a brief perspective on future work and discuss how recent advances in experimental techniques, bringing greater temporal and spatial resolution, along with improvements in the accuracy, realism and timescales achievable with computational approaches make it possible for these questions to be answered in the near future.</span></span></p></div>","PeriodicalId":434,"journal":{"name":"Surface Science Reports","volume":"70 3","pages":"Pages 424-447"},"PeriodicalIF":9.8,"publicationDate":"2015-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.07.001","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"2424393","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"化学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Epitaxial growth of group III-nitride films by pulsed laser deposition and their use in the development of LED devices","authors":"Guoqiang Li ,&nbsp;Wenliang Wang ,&nbsp;Weijia Yang ,&nbsp;Haiyan Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.06.001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.06.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p><span><span>Recently, pulsed laser deposition (PLD) technology makes viable the </span>epitaxial growth<span><span> of group III-nitrides on thermally active substrates at low temperature. The precursors generated from the pulsed laser ablating the target has enough kinetic energy when arriving at substrates, thereby effectively suppressing the interfacial reactions between the epitaxial films and the substrates, and eventually makes the film growth at low temperature possible. So far, high-quality group III-nitride epitaxial films have been successfully grown on a variety of thermally active substrates by PLD. By combining PLD with other technologies such as laser rastering technique, </span>molecular beam epitaxy (MBE), and metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD), III-nitride-based light-emitting diode (LED) structures have been realized on different thermally active substrates, with high-performance LED devices being demonstrated. This review focuses on the epitaxial growth of group III-nitrides on thermally active substrates by PLD and their use in the development of LED devices. The </span></span>surface morphology<span>, interfacial property between film and substrate, and crystalline quality of as-grown group III-nitride films by PLD, are systematically reviewed. The corresponding solutions for film homogeneity on large size substrates, defect control, and InGaN films growth by PLD are also discussed in depth, together with introductions to some newly developed technologies for PLD in order to realize LED structures, which provides great opportunities for commercialization of LEDs on thermally active substrates.</span></p></div>","PeriodicalId":434,"journal":{"name":"Surface Science Reports","volume":"70 3","pages":"Pages 380-423"},"PeriodicalIF":9.8,"publicationDate":"2015-11-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.06.001","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"2484644","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"化学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Structure and order in cobalt/platinum-type nanoalloys: from thin films to supported clusters","authors":"Pascal Andreazza ,&nbsp;Véronique Pierron-Bohnes ,&nbsp;Florent Tournus ,&nbsp;Caroline Andreazza-Vignolle ,&nbsp;Véronique Dupuis","doi":"10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.02.002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.02.002","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Among nanoalloys, Co–Pt type (CoPt or FePt) supported nanostructures are very interesting systems due to the direct link between atom arrangement and magnetic behavior. In addition, these alloys become model systems in the field of nanoalloys, due to the diversity of atom arrangements either present in the bulk state or specific to the nanoscale (chemically ordered L1₀, L1₂, or disordered fcc structures, core–shell, five-fold structures – icosahedral or decahedral, etc.). The synergy between experimental and modeling efforts has allowed the emergence of an overview of the structural, morphological and chemical behaviors of CoPt-based supported nanoparticles in terms of phase diagrams (temperature, composition, size effect), kinetic behavior (growth, annealing, ordering), and also in terms of environment effects (substrate, capping, matrix, gas) and of magnetic properties. All aspects of this complexity are reviewed: synthesis strategies (physical deposition, cluster beam deposition and wet chemical methods), magnetic behavior (atomic magnetic moment, magnetic anisotropy energy), structural transitions (non-crystalline/crystalline structures, order/disorder, surface/interface segregation), etc. In this field, the investigation techniques, such as electron microscopy and X-ray scattering or absorption techniques, are generally used at their ultimate limit due the small size of the studied objects. Finally, several aspects of the annealing process, which is a key phenomenon to achieve the chemical order, have been discussed in both thermodynamic and kinetic points of view (size effect, critical temperature, annealing time, twinning, coalescence, etc.).</p></div>","PeriodicalId":434,"journal":{"name":"Surface Science Reports","volume":"70 2","pages":"Pages 188-258"},"PeriodicalIF":9.8,"publicationDate":"2015-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.02.002","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"2345094","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"化学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Nanocatalysis: size- and shape-dependent chemisorption and catalytic reactivity","authors":"Beatriz Roldan Cuenya ,&nbsp;Farzad Behafarid","doi":"10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.01.001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.01.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p><span><span>In recent years, the field of catalysis has experienced an astonishing transformation, driven in part by more demanding environmental standards and critical societal and industrial needs such as the search for alternative energy sources. Thanks to the advent of nanotechnology, major steps have been made towards the rational design of novel catalysts. Striking new catalytic properties, including greatly enhanced reactivities and selectivities, have been reported for </span>nanoparticle (NP) catalysts as compared to their bulk counterparts. However, in order to harness the power of these nanocatalysts, a detailed understanding of the origin of their enhanced performance is needed. The present review focuses on the role of the NP size and shape on </span>chemisorption<span><span> and catalytic performance. Since homogeneity in NP size and shape is a prerequisite for the understanding of structure–reactivity correlations, we first review different synthesis methods that result in narrow NP size distributions and shape controlled NPs. Next, size-dependent phenomena which influence the chemical reactivity of NPs, including quantum size-effects and the presence of under-coordinated surface atoms are examined. The effect of the NP shape on catalytic performance is discussed and explained based on the existence of different atomic structures on the NP surface with distinct chemisorption properties. The influence of additional factors, such as the </span>oxidation state of the NPs and NP–support interactions, is also considered in the frame of the size- and shape-dependency that these phenomena present. Ultimately, our review highlights the importance of achieving a systematic understanding of the factors that control the activity and selectivity of a catalyst in order to avoid trial and error methods in the rational design of the new generation of nanocatalysts with properties tunable at the atomic level.</span></p></div>","PeriodicalId":434,"journal":{"name":"Surface Science Reports","volume":"70 2","pages":"Pages 135-187"},"PeriodicalIF":9.8,"publicationDate":"2015-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.01.001","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"3264608","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"化学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Electromagnetic density of states in complex plasmonic systems","authors":"R. Carminati ,&nbsp;A. Cazé ,&nbsp;D. Cao ,&nbsp;F. Peragut ,&nbsp;V. Krachmalnicoff ,&nbsp;R. Pierrat ,&nbsp;Y. De Wilde","doi":"10.1016/j.surfrep.2014.11.001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfrep.2014.11.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p><span><span>Nanostructured materials offer the possibility to tailor light–matter interaction at scales below the wavelength. Metallic nanostructures benefit from the excitation of </span>surface plasmons<span> that permit light concentration at ultrasmall length scales and ultrafast time scales. The local density of states (LDOS) is a central concept that drives basic processes of light–matter interaction such as spontaneous emission, </span></span>thermal emission<span><span><span> and absorption. We introduce theoretically the concept of LDOS, emphasizing the specificities of plasmonics. We connect the LDOS to real observables in nanophotonics, and show how the concept can be generalized to account for spatial coherence. We describe recent methods developed to probe or map the LDOS in complex nanostructures ranging from nanoantennas to disordered </span>metal surfaces, based on dynamic fluorescence measurements or on the detection of </span>thermal radiation.</span></p></div>","PeriodicalId":434,"journal":{"name":"Surface Science Reports","volume":"70 1","pages":"Pages 1-41"},"PeriodicalIF":9.8,"publicationDate":"2015-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.surfrep.2014.11.001","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"3264610","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"化学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Applications of surface analytical techniques in Earth Sciences","authors":"Gujie Qian,&nbsp;Yubiao Li,&nbsp;Andrea R. Gerson","doi":"10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.02.001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.02.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p><span><span>This review covers a wide range of surface analytical techniques: X-ray photoelectron<span> spectroscopy (XPS), scanning photoelectron microscopy (SPEM), photoemission electron microscopy (PEEM), dynamic and </span></span>static<span><span><span> secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS), </span>electron backscatter diffraction<span> (EBSD), atomic force microscopy (AFM). Others that are relatively less widely used but are also important to the Earth Sciences are also included: Auger </span></span>electron spectroscopy<span><span> (AES), low energy electron diffraction (LEED) and </span>scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM). All these techniques probe only the very top sample surface layers (sub-nm to several tens of nm). In addition, we also present several other techniques </span></span></span><em>i.e.</em><span><span> Raman microspectroscopy, reflection infrared (IR) microspectroscopy and quantitative evaluation of minerals by scanning electron microscopy (QEMSCAN) that penetrate deeper into the sample, up to several μm, as all of them are fundamental analytical tools for the Earth Sciences. Grazing incidence </span>synchrotron<span> techniques, sensitive to surface measurements, are also briefly introduced at the end of this review. (Scanning) transmission electron microscopy (TEM/STEM) is a special case that can be applied to characterisation of mineralogical and geological sample surfaces. Since TEM/STEM is such an important technique for Earth Scientists, we have also included it to draw attention to the capability of TEM/STEM applied as a surface-equivalent tool.</span></span></p><p>While this review presents most of the important techniques for the Earth Sciences, it is not an all-inclusive bibliography of those analytical techniques. Instead, for each technique that is discussed, we first give a very brief introduction about its principle and background, followed by a short section on approaches to sample preparation that are important for researchers to appreciate prior to the actual sample analysis. We then use examples from publications (and also some of our known unpublished results) within the Earth Sciences to show how each technique is applied and used to obtain specific information and to resolve real problems, which forms the central theme of this review. Although this review focuses on applications of these techniques to study mineralogical and geological samples, we also anticipate that researchers from other research areas such as Material and Environmental Sciences may benefit from this review.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":434,"journal":{"name":"Surface Science Reports","volume":"70 1","pages":"Pages 86-133"},"PeriodicalIF":9.8,"publicationDate":"2015-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://sci-hub-pdf.com/10.1016/j.surfrep.2015.02.001","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"1828696","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"化学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}