Etransportation最新文献

{"title":"Paving the path toward silicon as anode material for future solid-state batteries","authors":"Palanivel Molaiyan ,&nbsp;Buket Boz ,&nbsp;Glaydson Simoes dos Reis ,&nbsp;Rafal Sliz ,&nbsp;Shuo Wang ,&nbsp;Marco Borsari ,&nbsp;Ulla Lassi ,&nbsp;Andrea Paolella","doi":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100391","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100391","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Solid-state batteries (SSBs) have emerged as an important technology for powering future electric vehicles and other applications due to their potential for enhanced safety and higher energy density compared to lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Among future energy storage systems, SSBs (either semi or full SSBs) are the most promising candidates in terms of safety, cost, performance, and compactness. There has been a great effort to utilize silicon (Si) anode in SSBs due to its high specific capacity (3590 mAh g⁻¹), low cost, and earth abundance. SSBs with silicon anodes displayed attractive application prospects. The current research efforts showed that there is a great need to understand electrochemical performance, especially the interphase behavior, Si material design, and advanced tools for analytical characterization. In this review, we provide insights about the Si anode design, interface issues, SEI formation, failure mechanisms, and material modifications for the development of next-generation Si-based SSBs of use to bridge the gap between applied research and industrial scale applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36355,"journal":{"name":"Etransportation","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 100391"},"PeriodicalIF":15.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143163254","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Corrigendum to “A comprehensive study of various carbon-free vehicle propulsion systems utilizing ammonia-hydrogen synergy fuel” [eTransportation 20 (2024) 100332]","authors":"Nuo Lei,&nbsp;Hao Zhang,&nbsp;Hu Chen,&nbsp;Zhi Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100349","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100349","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":36355,"journal":{"name":"Etransportation","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 100349"},"PeriodicalIF":15.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141776589","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental investigation of the influence of venting gases on thermal runaway propagation in lithium-ion batteries with enclosed packaging","authors":"Rongqi Peng ,&nbsp;Depeng Kong ,&nbsp;Ping Ping ,&nbsp;Wei Gao ,&nbsp;Gongquan Wang ,&nbsp;Shenglan Gong ,&nbsp;Can Yang ,&nbsp;Xinzeng Gao ,&nbsp;Xu He","doi":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100388","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100388","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Thermal runaway (TR) of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) involves venting high-temperature combustible gases. Common enclosure-style battery packs without specialized venting can constrain these gases, potentially promoting thermal runaway propagation (TRP) within the module. To clarify the impact of unignited TR venting gases on TRP, this study conducted comparative experiments on LiFePO₄ modules with normal packaging (NP) and isolated venting packaging (IVP). In NP, the module’s top includes baffles allowing venting to spread, whereas IVP uses dedicated airflow channels to isolate venting. Quantitative analyses of TRP behavior, temperature, and mass loss rates were conducted under varying heating positions and states of charge (SOCs). Results indicated that NP modules exhibited faster TRP in all tests due to heat accumulation from venting gases in the semi-enclosed space between cell surfaces and packaging, compared to IVP. In the side heating scenario, TR behavior of SOC 100 % NP modules was more severe, with an average heat contribution from TR venting gases of front-end cells just before safety valve activation in back-end cells being 27.3 %, while not all cells underwent TR under IVP. Under intermediate heating, lower SOCs caused TR venting gas heat contribution to decrease from 27.4 % at SOC 100 %–8 % at SOC 50 %. These findings demonstrate that venting gases from TR cells significantly accelerate TRP in enclosed structures, highlighting the critical importance of packaging design for safety. Consequently, venting gases should be directed away from the module and effective thermal insulation measures implemented to reduce TRP risk.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36355,"journal":{"name":"Etransportation","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 100388"},"PeriodicalIF":15.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143163253","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Optimizing resilient parallel refueling operations: relaxed stochastic economic mobility scheduling for fuel cell vehicles with multiple hydrogen storage systems","authors":"Muhammad Bakr Abdelghany ,&nbsp;Ahmed Al-Durra ,&nbsp;Hatem Zeineldin ,&nbsp;Mohamed Shawky El Moursi ,&nbsp;Jiefeng Hu ,&nbsp;Fei Gao","doi":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100393","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100393","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The growing demand for hydrogen-based mobility highlights the importance of management strategies for hydrogen refueling stations (HRSs), particularly in handling uncertainties related to hydrogen demand, energy forecasts, and market prices. This paper presents a sophisticated approach for managing an HRS powered by renewable energy sources (RESs) that addresses these uncertainties. The HRS is designed to support the simultaneous refueling of multiple hydrogen electric vehicles, including light vehicles and buses, and operates in both off-connected without access to the hydrogen market and on-connected with access to the hydrogen market. The connection to the hydrogen market allows for the purchase of hydrogen when RESs are insufficient and the sale of excess hydrogen. Additionally, a buffer-tank is integrated into the system to store surplus hydrogen, which can be converted to energy and sold to the electrical market when prices are favorable. The proposed strategy incorporates Boolean relaxations and a stochastic scenario-based approach within a model predictive control framework to enhance robustness against uncertainties and reduce computational complexity. Numerical simulations show that the strategy optimizes the use of multiple tanks for parallel refueling and ensures effective HRS operation by meeting hydrogen demands, satisfying operational constraints, minimizing costs, and maximizing profits. Furthermore, when compared to other strategies in the literature with a modeling and control perspective, incorporating degradation factors into control settings significantly reduces unnecessary electrolyzer switching, leading to a 30% decrease in operating expenses and over 2,000 fewer switching events annually, while the relaxed framework achieves nearly a 50% reduction in computation time with both open-source and commercial solvers (e.g., GUROBI).</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36355,"journal":{"name":"Etransportation","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 100393"},"PeriodicalIF":15.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143163248","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Business cases for degradation-aware bidirectional charging of residential users and heavy-duty vehicle fleets","authors":"David Menchaca Santos,&nbsp;Pauline Thüne,&nbsp;Jan Martin Zepter,&nbsp;Mattia Marinelli","doi":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100389","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100389","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In the push towards decarbonizing the transport sector, integrating electric vehicles (EVs) is crucial. Vehicle-to-everything services can address concerns about EV acceptance and grid integration, but viable business models are necessary to incentivize user participation. This paper presents a techno-economic mixed integer linear programming optimization model to assess the feasibility of bidirectional charging for residential users (RUs) and heavy-duty fleet vehicles. The model ensures proper battery degradation management and integrates renewable energy sources at charging locations. Price arbitrage (PA), specifically vehicle-to-home (V2H) and residential vehicle-to-grid (V2G), is explored for RUs. For larger EV fleets, V2G PA and V2G combined with frequency containment reserve for disturbances (FCR-D) are investigated. Business cases guide the optimization, simulating a year of operation in Eastern Denmark. The results are compared to a baseline scenario with no bidirectional charging capability. RUs achieve average cost savings of 176<!--> <!-->€<!--> <!-->with a payback period of 5 to 23 years, depending on the charging equipment supplier. V2H proves most suitable for <em>remote</em> users with flexible charging patterns. While EV fleets do not see significant savings with V2G alone, V2G combined with FCR-D yields savings of 330<!--> <!--> <!-->thousand <!--> <!-->€<!--> <!-->with a payback period of 3 to 17 years. Challenges remain due to the rarity of commercially available bidirectional charging equipment and limited data on driving patterns. However, our analysis shows that bidirectional charging offers substantial financial incentives for both RUs and fleet managers, promoting EV adoption and advancing transport sector decarbonization.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36355,"journal":{"name":"Etransportation","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 100389"},"PeriodicalIF":15.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143163249","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Electric vehicle charging flexibility assessment for load shifting based on real-world charging pattern identification","authors":"Xiaohui Li ,&nbsp;Zhenpo Wang ,&nbsp;Lei Zhang ,&nbsp;Zhijia Huang ,&nbsp;Fangce Guo ,&nbsp;Aruna Sivakumar ,&nbsp;Dirk Uwe Sauer","doi":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100367","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100367","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Coordinated charging control for electric vehicles (EVs) can contribute to load balancing and renewable energy utilization. This paper proposes a novel framework for assessing the flexibility of EVs under different charging control strategies through a rule-based identification of charging patterns. First, key categories of EV charging activity chains, characterized by the sequence of parking and charging activities between adjacent trips, are extracted from real-world EV operation data. Simulations are then conducted by switching charging patterns to represent three coordinated charging control methods: delayed charging, reduced-power charging, and smart charging with Time-of-Use (ToU) tariffs. These strategies are applied by modifying the charging time or charging rate within the original charging sessions. Several evaluation metrics are introduced to quantify each strategy's impact on load profile reshaping, flexibility utilization efficiency, user involvement, and energy cost saving. Comparison results show that smart charging with ToU tariffs outperforms the other two strategies, though the effectiveness of each scheme varies with charging patterns. The findings highlight the idle parking time and its ratio to the required charging time as key indicators for identifying potential EV users for coordinated charging control. Additionally, it is shown that shifting 1 % of EV charging load out of peak periods requires at least 4 % of user participation, while at least 3 % is needed for shifting 1 % of EV charging load into valley periods. The proposed pattern-based charging model and evaluation framework offer valuable insights for designing more efficient, cost-effective, and user-friendly EV charging scheduling strategies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36355,"journal":{"name":"Etransportation","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 100367"},"PeriodicalIF":15.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143163252","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"China's new energy vehicles and the new energy revolution: Innovation of energy storage batteries as foundation","authors":"Minggao Ouyang","doi":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100385","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100385","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":36355,"journal":{"name":"Etransportation","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 100385"},"PeriodicalIF":15.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143164510","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Liquid hydrogen refueling stations as an alternative to gaseous hydrogen refueling stations: Process development and integrative analyses","authors":"Chaehee Gong ,&nbsp;Heeseung Na ,&nbsp;Sungil Yun ,&nbsp;Young-Ju Kim ,&nbsp;Wangyun Won","doi":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100386","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100386","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The use of clean hydrogen is gaining attention as part of efforts to establish a sustainable energy value chain. However, current hydrogen refueling stations remain energy-intensive. To utilize hydrogen more cleanly, a thorough analysis of hydrogen refueling stations from an energy efficiency perspective is necessary. Liquid hydrogen refueling stations are emerging as an environmentally friendly alternative to current gaseous hydrogen refueling stations. For liquid hydrogen refueling stations to carve out a niche in a well-established market dominated by gaseous hydrogen refueling stations, the hydrogen selling price must be competitive. In this research, an energy-optimized design for liquid hydrogen refueling stations was proposed, focusing on reducing operating costs and mitigating potential environmental impacts. The developed design integrated three energy-saving systems into a basic liquid hydrogen refueling station: 1) a heat exchange system for hydrogen pre-cooling, 2) an organic Rankine cycle for waste heat recovery, and 3) a catalytic combustor for utilizing boil-off gas. To assess the viability of the integrated process, case studies were conducted focusing on economic, environmental, energy, and exergy performance. Consequently, the proposed design with integrated energy-saving systems demonstrated that while it increased the minimum hydrogen selling price by 5 % compared to the basic liquid hydrogen refueling station, it could reduce global warming potential by 41 %. We expect that our results will provide a better way to build the infrastructure of hydrogen refueling stations with the growth of the future hydrogen fuel cell electric vehicle market.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36355,"journal":{"name":"Etransportation","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 100386"},"PeriodicalIF":15.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143163255","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Design of high-energy-density lithium batteries: Liquid to all solid state","authors":"Haozhe Du ,&nbsp;Xu Zhang ,&nbsp;Haijun Yu","doi":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100382","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100382","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>With the rising demand of lithium batteries from application fields including electric vehicles (EVs) and various electric aircrafts, it is imperative to greatly enhance the energy density of lithium batteries by rational design. However, there is still a lack of design roadmap for high-energy-density lithium batteries, largely owing to the uncertain selections of electrochemically active materials and the complicated relationships of diverse factors. In this article, based on the discussion of effects of key components and prototype design of lithium batteries with different energy density classes, we aim to tentatively present an overall and systematic design principle and roadmap, covering the key factors and reflecting crucial relationships. This article starts from the fundamental principles of battery design, and the effects of cathode, anode, electrolyte, and other components to realize high-energy-density lithium batteries have been discussed. Based on the prototype design of high-energy-density lithium batteries, it is shown that energy densities of different classes up to 1000 Wh/kg can be realized, where lithium-rich layered oxides (LLOs) and solid-state electrolytes play central roles to gain high energy densities above 500 Wh/kg. Lithium batteries are thus categorized according to different energy density classes, with available component options, to meet their most suitable application scenes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36355,"journal":{"name":"Etransportation","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 100382"},"PeriodicalIF":15.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143163256","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Electric machine co-optimization for EV drive technology development: Integrating Bayesian optimization and nonlinear model predictive control","authors":"Christoph Wellmann ,&nbsp;Abdul Rahman Khaleel ,&nbsp;Tobias Brinkmann ,&nbsp;Alexander Wahl ,&nbsp;Christian Monissen ,&nbsp;Markus Eisenbarth ,&nbsp;Jakob Andert","doi":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100392","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.etran.2024.100392","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;div&gt;&lt;div&gt;Electric powertrains are becoming increasingly prevalent in various mobile propulsion applications, not only due to legislations for lower CO&lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;msub&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;2&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/msub&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt; emissions and local pollution, but also due to growing sustainable consciousness. However, conceptualizing those systems, consisting of component and controller design processes, is a complex task. The complexity itself arises from the amount of requirements for design objectives and use-cases, which can be met inside a multidimensional parameter space. Additionally, system design and evaluation are inherently tied to coupled component and system control strategy optimization. In this context, the paper presents a fully automated active machine learning methodology applied for a combined optimization of electric machine and system controller design, considering system performance, durability, and energy consumption. During this iterative approach a stochastic optimization of a permanent magnet synchronous machine (PMSM) takes place, constrained from a nonlinear model predictive control in a model-in-the-loop system environment. The active learning is covered by a Bayesian optimization algorithm with a Gaussian process regression to determine the most suitable parameter set in terms of exploration and exploitation. To demonstrate the feasibility of this novel methodology, a thermal subsystem from an electrified state-of-the-art powertrain has been used and further optimized regarding PMSM scaling and final gear ratio. Different real-world drive scenarios from highway to city were taken into account to cover typical sport utility vehicle use-cases. It could be shown that the electric machine losses of the optimized system are reduced by up to &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;32&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mo&gt;.&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mn&gt;7&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mspace&gt;&lt;/mspace&gt;&lt;mstyle&gt;&lt;mtext&gt;%&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;/mstyle&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt;, which equals a consumption of &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mn&gt;0&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mo&gt;.&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mn&gt;43&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mspace&gt;&lt;/mspace&gt;&lt;mstyle&gt;&lt;mfrac&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi&gt;k&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi&gt;W&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi&gt;h&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;100&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mi&gt;k&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi&gt;m&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mfrac&gt;&lt;/mstyle&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt; compared to the reference vehicle. Due to slightly worse operating conditions of the inverter the whole system consumption has been minimized by &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mn&gt;0&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mo&gt;.&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mn&gt;35&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mspace&gt;&lt;/mspace&gt;&lt;mstyle&gt;&lt;mfrac&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mi&gt;k&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi&gt;W&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi&gt;h&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;100&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mi&gt;k&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;mi&gt;m&lt;/mi&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/mfrac&gt;&lt;/mstyle&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt;. Three parameter studies with fixed iteration count have been executed to find the optimal machine diameter to be increased by &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;25&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mspace&gt;&lt;/mspace&gt;&lt;mstyle&gt;&lt;mtext&gt;%&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;/mstyle&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt; and the length slightly reduced by &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mn&gt;16&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mspace&gt;&lt;/mspace&gt;&lt;mstyle&gt;&lt;mtext&gt;%&lt;/mtext&gt;&lt;/mstyle&gt;&lt;/mrow&gt;&lt;/math&gt;&lt;/span&gt;. Moreover, the total gear ratio was adjusted by &lt;span&gt;&lt;math&gt;&lt;mrow&gt;&lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;&lt;mn&gt;31&lt;/mn&gt;&lt;mspace&gt;&lt;/mspace&gt;&lt;msty","PeriodicalId":36355,"journal":{"name":"Etransportation","volume":"23 ","pages":"Article 100392"},"PeriodicalIF":15.0,"publicationDate":"2025-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143163250","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}