International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow最新文献

{"title":"Effects of droplet oscillation on the aerodynamic behavior of sessile droplets in shear flows","authors":"Zichen Zhang ,&nbsp;Reza Yaghoubi Emami ,&nbsp;Xueqin Bu ,&nbsp;Guiping Lin ,&nbsp;Alidad Amirfazli","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110294","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110294","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>An experimental study was conducted to investigate the influence of droplet oscillation on the aerodynamic characteristics of sessile droplets on hydrophilic and hydrophobic surfaces. A hot-wire anemometer, a high-resolution high-speed camera, and particle image velocimetry (PIV) were employed to quantify the flow characteristics in the symmetry plane of both droplets and solid replicas, thereby isolating the effect of droplet oscillation on the surrounding flow fields. Since the solid replicas do not oscillate while the droplets exhibit significant oscillation, the observed differences in the flow field can be attributed to droplet oscillation.</div><div>Periodic velocity fluctuations were observed in the wake of oscillating droplets, particularly in the shear layer, with a frequency matching that of the vertical droplet oscillation. In contrast, such fluctuations were absent in the case of solid replicas, indicating that droplet oscillation substantially alters the instantaneous flow structure in the wake. PIV results further revealed that droplet oscillation also affects the time-averaged flow structure in the symmetry plane. A notable difference is the shortened recirculation region behind oscillating droplets, suggesting that oscillation hinders flow separation growth and suppresses the formation of a large-scale wake region. Additionally, droplet oscillation destabilizes the shear flow originating from the droplet apex, leading to a surge in turbulence intensity closer to the droplet surface. The aerodynamic drag was estimated using a wake integration method applied to data from the droplet symmetry plane. Results show that although droplet oscillation modifies both the instantaneous and time-averaged flow fields, it does not significantly affect the time-averaged aerodynamic drag, even under varying droplet configurations and freestream velocities. For the widely studied case of wind-driven droplets, this finding shows that oscillation is negligible in time-averaged force analysis. The measurement uncertainty for the aerodynamic drag was carefully evaluated to be below 8.9%.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"120 ","pages":"Article 110294"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148231345","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Stability analysis of Poiseuille–Rayleigh–Bénard convection of Jeffreys fluids in an inclined fluid-porous system","authors":"Zhiman Luan ,&nbsp;Chen Yin ,&nbsp;Stuart Norris ,&nbsp;Ye Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110273","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110273","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study investigates the instabilities of Poiseuille–Rayleigh–Bénard convection of Jeffreys fluids in an inclined fluid-porous system subjected to a gravity-driven plane Poiseuille flow. In light of the linear stability analysis and the spectral collocation method, we find that some neutral curves of oscillatory instabilities are bimodal and the dominant mode shifts between the long-wave and short-wave branches with the variation of the depth ratio. For some depth ratios, the transition of the dominant mode will shift from short-wave branch to the long-wave branch with the increase of angles. In addition, the neutral curves appear trimodal at the depth ratio <span><math><mrow><mover><mrow><mi>d</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>ˆ</mo></mrow></mover><mo>=</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>2</mn></mrow></math></span> and the inclination angle <span><math><mrow><mn>4</mn><mo>°</mo><mo>≤</mo><mi>θ</mi><mo>≤</mo><mn>6</mn><mo>°</mo></mrow></math></span>. For the local Reynolds number <span><math><mrow><mn>1</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>96</mn><mo>≤</mo><mi>R</mi><msub><mrow><mi>e</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>f</mi></mrow></msub><mo>≤</mo><mn>4</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>1</mn></mrow></math></span>, the dominant instability is the short-wave branch when <span><math><mrow><mn>0</mn><mo>°</mo><mo>≤</mo><mi>θ</mi><mo>≤</mo><mn>5</mn><mo>°</mo></mrow></math></span>. When <span><math><mrow><mi>R</mi><msub><mrow><mi>e</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>f</mi></mrow></msub></mrow></math></span> and <span><math><mi>θ</mi></math></span> are not in these intervals, it is always dominated by the long-wave branch. The strain retardation time and the stress relaxation time are found to have opposite influences on the instabilities. Moreover, the greater angles delay onset of the oscillatory instability and the short-wave modes vanish near <span><math><mrow><mi>θ</mi><mo>=</mo><mn>60</mn><mo>°</mo></mrow></math></span> and 70° for both viscoelastic times. In a slightly inclined system, the Froude number has the same effect on long-wave and short-wave branches. On the contrary, the Froude number has an opposite effect on two branches with a greater inclination angle: stability increases for long waves but decreases for short waves as the Froude number increases.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"120 ","pages":"Article 110273"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148231349","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Modified scaling for turbulent heat transfer on rough surfaces","authors":"R. Gaudioso ,&nbsp;D. Sotomayor-Zakharov ,&nbsp;M. Gallia","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110307","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110307","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study proposes a modified scaling for turbulent heat transfer on rough walls. The formulation introduces modified friction quantities <span><math><msubsup><mrow><mi>u</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>τ</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>∗</mo></mrow></msubsup></math></span> and <span><math><msubsup><mrow><mi>T</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>τ</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>∗</mo></mrow></msubsup></math></span>, exploiting a non-dimensional parameter <span><math><mi>G</mi></math></span>. Directly computed from simulations, <span><math><mi>G</mi></math></span> enters the Reynolds analogy and reflects the absence of a heat-transfer counterpart to local pressure gradients. Two numerical databases at comparable <span><math><mrow><mi>P</mi><mi>r</mi><mo>∼</mo><mn>0</mn><mo>.</mo><mn>7</mn></mrow></math></span> are examined: a periodic channel DNS over sinusoidal roughness, and a turbulent thermal boundary layer LES over irregular ice roughness. Despite their differing topologies, both reveal a proportionality between <span><math><mi>G</mi></math></span> and the roughness Stanton number <span><math><mrow><mi>S</mi><msubsup><mrow><mi>t</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>k</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>−</mo><mn>1</mn></mrow></msubsup></mrow></math></span>. A relation was fitted that provides accurate <span><math><mrow><mi>S</mi><mi>t</mi></mrow></math></span> estimates and supports the interpretation of <span><math><mi>G</mi></math></span> as a measure of thermal resistance relative to momentum transfer, similarly to <span><math><mrow><mi>S</mi><msubsup><mrow><mi>t</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>k</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>−</mo><mn>1</mn></mrow></msubsup></mrow></math></span>. Furthermore, a correction to the classical <span><math><mrow><mi>Δ</mi><msup><mrow><mi>Θ</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>+</mo></mrow></msup><mrow><mo>(</mo><msubsup><mrow><mi>k</mi></mrow><mrow><mi>s</mi></mrow><mrow><mo>+</mo></mrow></msubsup><mo>)</mo></mrow></mrow></math></span> scaling, based on <span><math><mi>G</mi></math></span>, yields improved collapse of temperature and velocity log-layer shifts. The results indicate that <span><math><mi>G</mi></math></span> could be potentially used to extend Reynolds analogy models based on the proposed scaling. While being limited to specific roughness datasets and flow conditions, this framework offers a first step towards an alternative numerical modeling of heat transfer in rough-wall turbulence.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"120 ","pages":"Article 110307"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148231342","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Corrigendum to “Intensified melting process in a horizontal thermal energy storage unit with graded-porosity metal foam for geothermal systems” [Int. J. Heat Fluid Flow vol. 119 (2026) 110269]","authors":"Chuanqing Huang ,&nbsp;Jiajie Liu ,&nbsp;Junwei Su ,&nbsp;Chang Su","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110371","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110371","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"120 ","pages":"Article 110371"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148231206","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Uniform wavenumber distribution improves energy spectrum consistency of synthetic turbulence","authors":"Hongyuan Lin ,&nbsp;Yi Liu ,&nbsp;Shizhao Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110306","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110306","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Statistical consistency between the generated and prescribed energy spectra is a critical challenge in synthetic turbulence generation using the random Fourier method (RFM). While the logarithmic wavenumber distribution is traditionally recommended based on empirical experience, its performance under finite mode counts lacks rigorous verification. We investigate the impact of uniform and logarithmic wavenumber distributions on the spectral consistency of RFM-generated turbulence. The results show that the uniform distribution significantly outperforms the logarithmic distribution in both single and multiple realizations, particularly when the number of Fourier modes is limited. Analysis reveals that the logarithmic distribution suffers from sparse discretizations in the high-wavenumber range, leading to unnatural amplification of velocity amplitudes. In contrast, the uniform distribution ensures consistent error control across the entire spectral range. This work clarifies the impact of wavenumber distribution in RFM and offers practical guidance for parameter selection in synthetic turbulence.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"120 ","pages":"Article 110306"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148231354","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Performance evaluation of dovetail fin variants derived from a rectangular fin for laptop heat sinks","authors":"Yogesh Chouksey,&nbsp;Nitin Shrivastava,&nbsp;Sunil Kumar","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110256","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110256","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Cooling compact electronics, such as laptops, is challenging due to strict size limitations and the low thermal capacity of air. While rectangular fins are commonly used, dovetail fins with tip clearance may offer improved thermal performance. This study investigates the thermal–hydraulic behaviour of rectangular and dovetail fin heat sinks under these constraints. Initially, a rectangular channel heat sink was designed and later modified to a channel heat sink incorporating a rectangular fin with tip clearance. This fin was further adapted into three dovetail fin variants by varying the root and tip thicknesses to evaluate the feasibility of replacing rectangular fins. CFD analyses were conducted in ANSYS Fluent for inlet air velocities ranging from 1 to 6 m/s (corresponding Reynolds number varies from 2054–12323), with the top surface of the heat sink maintained at a constant temperature of 360 K. Temperature distribution, heat transfer, pressure drop, and effectiveness were evaluated, considering weight in the performance comparison. Dovetail fins outperformed the rectangular fin, enhancing heat convection by up to 20.6% but with a 66.7% increase in weight and substantially higher pressure drops. The dovetail variant with weight equal to the rectangular fin achieved up to 2.2% higher performance with only a marginal increase in pressure drop, indicating its potential as a promising alternative.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"119 ","pages":"Article 110256"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145974050","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The flow and heat transfer performance of a novel double-spiral heat sink for processing unit cooling","authors":"Feiyu Chen ,&nbsp;Chenghao Liu ,&nbsp;Xin Wu ,&nbsp;Shida Yao ,&nbsp;Wenguang Liu ,&nbsp;Wei Chang","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110299","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110299","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The escalating thermal power of processors demands advanced cooling solutions. This study proposes a novel double-spiral heat sink (DSHS) with dual inlets and outlets to address this challenge. First, experiments were conducted to test the performance of different inlet methods. When cooling water flows in from the end with a larger radius of curvature, the temperature difference of the CPU can be 49.3% lower than other methods. A decrease in the radius of curvature enhances the disturbance of the fluid, mitigating the negative impact of rising water temperature on the temperature difference. The simulation results show good consistency with the experimental data. The optimal spiral dimensions are determined to be <em>r</em> = 3 mm and <em>R</em> = 15 mm based on the geometric parameter analysis. Compared with single spiral heat sink (SSHS), DSHS can reduce the pressure drop by 48.3% and temperature difference by 64.1%. In addition, the DSHS is compared with the serpentine heat sink (SHS) to prove its advantages. The results show that the average temperature of the DSHS is slightly lower than that of the SHS, while the pressure drop, temperature difference, and performance evaluation criterion are all significantly better than those of the SHS. DSHS can dissipate a maximum heat of 438 W. The varying radius of curvature of DSHS can continuously disrupt the boundary layer and enhance heat transfer. Furthermore, by slotting the wall surface, the pressure drop is reduced by 10% without affecting the heat dissipation. The DSHS maintains its performance benefits across different working fluids such as ethylene glycol solution and transformer oil, showing its advantage of wide applicability. The proposed DSHS provides a promising alternative design of heat sinks for the processing unit cooling applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"119 ","pages":"Article 110299"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146170482","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Cavitation and associated entropy production characteristic of a pump turbine in pumping mode based on a modified Zwart-Gerber-Belamri model","authors":"Xiuli Mao ,&nbsp;Jiaren Hu ,&nbsp;Pengju Zhong ,&nbsp;Tong Mu ,&nbsp;Zhiping Zhang ,&nbsp;Shenggen Li","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110288","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110288","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study develops a modified Zwart-Gerber-Belamri (MZGB) cavitation model in which the saturation vapor pressure is defined dynamically. The proposed model is then applied to investigate the cavitation evolution and entropy production characteristics of a pump turbine under multiple pumping conditions. Numerical predictions based on the MZGB model show closer agreement with experimental data than those from the ZGB model, with an accuracy of 96.17% for pressure variation. With decreasing flow rate and cavitation number, the cavitation region extends along the blade suction surface, and coupled cavitation-vortex structures form within the runner, increasing both cavitation and vortex volume. The precipitation of cavitation bubbles, accompanied by energy absorption, weakens the pressure pulsations within the cavitation region. By contrast, in the non-cavitation region at 0.8 times of the flow rate at the best efficiency point (0.8<em>Q</em>_BEP), the maximum amplitude is 12 times that at 1.0<em>Q</em>_BEP and 1.9 times that at 0.6<em>Q</em>_BEP. Due to vortex development and flow separation in the runner, the dominant frequency of pressure pulsations corresponds to the runner rotating frequency (<em>f</em>_n) at 1.0<em>Q</em>_BEP, while that at 0.8<em>Q</em>_BEP is dominated by 3<em>f</em>_n. In contrast, 0.6<em>Q</em>_BEP exhibits multiple pressure pulsation peaks within <em>f</em>/<em>f</em>_n ≤ 5. Furthermore, as <em>C_σ</em> and flow rate decrease, the primary entropy production region extends to both the runner and guide vane domains, while the dominant mechanism of entropy production transfers from the wall shear dissipation to the turbulent dissipation. These findings provide a theoretical guidance for the cavitation risk assessment and the energy loss mitigation in pump turbines.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"119 ","pages":"Article 110288"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146169959","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Mechanism of cycloidal trailing-edge blades in suppressing pressure pulsation and vibration in centrifugal pumps","authors":"Yahui Hu ,&nbsp;Qinyang Li ,&nbsp;Jian Chen ,&nbsp;Guanghua Gan ,&nbsp;Chengyi Yi","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110305","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110305","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>To suppress pressure pulsation and flow-induced vibration in a fire-fighting centrifugal pump, cycloidal trailing-edge blades are designed according to the cycloidal principle, and three variants are assessed using transient CFD, combined with time–frequency analysis and coherent-structure identification based on the <em>Q</em>-criterion. The results show that cycloidal shaping reorganises the impeller-exit wake by weakening shear-layer roll-up and wake intermittency, thereby alleviating the tongue-adjacent impeller–volute interaction and reducing the broadband disturbance level. Consequently, pressure fluctuations are reduced in both the impeller passage and the volute, with a pronounced attenuation of low-frequency components below 50 Hz. Among the three designs, the B2 configuration achieves the best overall suppression, reducing impeller pressure-coefficient fluctuations by 42–55 percent and attenuating the oscillations of radial and axial loads, while producing smoother force waveforms. These findings link the effectiveness of the cycloidal trailing edge to wake reorganisation and reduced tongue-induced excitation, providing a practical geometric strategy to improve the stability and vibration–noise characteristics of fire-fighting centrifugal pumps.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"119 ","pages":"Article 110305"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146170020","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A review of the immersion liquid cooling technology for high-performance data centers","authors":"Chunjie Yang,&nbsp;Xianfeng Zhu,&nbsp;Guangyi Zhang,&nbsp;Gui Pan,&nbsp;Xingchuan Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110282","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.ijheatfluidflow.2026.110282","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In the context of global digital transformation, the rapid expansion of data centers has intensified the challenge of high-power cooling. Traditional air cooling, with its limited efficiency, is increasingly inadequate to meet current demands. Immersion liquid cooling (ILC) has thus emerged as a critical research focus in data center thermal management, owing to its superior heat dissipation capabilities, excellent temperature uniformity, and energy-saving advantages. This paper provides a comprehensive analysis of ILC technology, examining coolant classification and selection criteria, the operating principles and performance of various liquid-cooling structures, and their practical applications. Two primary coolant types—oil-based and fluorocarbon-based—are evaluated, along with three main ILC system configurations: buoyancy-driven single-phase, pump-driven single-phase, and two-phase systems, each suited to different heat load scenarios. Performance improvement strategies, including passive and active enhancement techniques, are also explored. The research concludes that ILC has entered the stage of large-scale demonstration, significantly improving energy efficiency and exhibiting clear trends toward higher density and modularization. However, challenges such as high costs, operational complexity, and the lack of unified standards persist. Future efforts should prioritize technological innovation, cost reduction, and standardization to facilitate wider adoption and support the development of green, efficient data centers.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":335,"journal":{"name":"International Journal of Heat and Fluid Flow","volume":"119 ","pages":"Article 110282"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146170022","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}