Applied Energy最新文献

{"title":"Integration of a salt cavern for large-scale hydrogen storage into a solar-wind-storage power system: Technical and economic advantages","authors":"Jingze Yang ,&nbsp;Binbin Fu ,&nbsp;Jiaqi Peng ,&nbsp;Guibin Wang ,&nbsp;Hong Yao","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126073","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126073","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The problem of cross-seasonal mismatch between power supply and demand is becoming increasingly prominent in high proportion renewable energy generation systems. Relying solely on mature energy storage technologies, such as electrochemical and thermal energy storage, cannot address this challenge. In this paper, salt cavern is utilized for large-scale hydrogen storage, and complements battery and thermal energy storage to achieve multi-time scale power regulation of solar-wind power systems. The optimal combination and capacity parameters of the system are obtained through multi-objective optimization of levelized cost of energy (LCOE), loss of power supply probability (LPSP), and curtailed power amount, and the comprehensive performance is compared with the system without hydrogen devices and the system with hydrogen tanks. Results show that when the power supply reliability is extremely high, the integration of low-cost and large-scale salt cavern hydrogen storage can significantly reduce the installed capacities of power generation and energy storage devices, thereby reducing LCOE and improving power consumption ability. When the annual power demand is fully met, the LCOE of the proposed system is $0.244 /kWh, which is $0.216 /kWh lower than the system with hydrogen tanks, demonstrating a huge economic advantage. While compared to the system without hydrogen devices, the LCOE can be reduced by $0.055/kWh. More importantly, the annual curtailed power can be reduced by 76% under tri-objective optimization. Although salt cavern hydrogen storage technology has advantages in certain power supply scenarios, accelerating the reduction of unit investment costs for electrolyzer and fuel cell is particularly important.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"393 ","pages":"Article 126073"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-05-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143948609","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Study on a novel dot array cathode flow field with discrete ship-shaped ribs structures for proton exchange membrane fuel cell","authors":"Fazong Li ,&nbsp;Hao Luo ,&nbsp;Jianping Hu ,&nbsp;Yonghua Cai ,&nbsp;Tianqi Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126096","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126096","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>A novel dot array cathode flow field with discrete ship-shaped ribs structures for proton exchange membrane fuel cell was proposed. The parameters of width of the lower surface of rib <em>W</em>_r, width of the channel <em>W</em>_c, ratio of length of bow of the lower surface of rib to length of the lower surface of rib <em>T</em>_f /4L, and ratio of length of stern of the lower surface of rib to length of the lower surface of rib <em>T</em>_b /4L are optimized through neural network and genetic algorithm. Results indicate that, compared to a parallel straight flow field, the novel flow field features a broader working current density range, higher peak net power density, and better mass and heat transfer performance. Effects of <em>W</em>_c and <em>W</em>_r on PEMFC performance are more significant compared to <em>T</em>_f /4L and <em>T</em>_b /4L. The optimal dot array flow field shows an increase in peak net power density and current density at 0.4 V by 12.6 % and 10.2 %, respectively, compared to the parallel straight flow field. The enhancement magnitude and trend of the experimental results are generally consistent with the numerical simulation results.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"393 ","pages":"Article 126096"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-05-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143942738","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Overcoming challenges in the path to a hydrogen economy for energy supply chain transition","authors":"Iman Ghasemian Sahebi ,&nbsp;Behzad Masoomi ,&nbsp;Fatemeh Gholian-Jouybari ,&nbsp;Mostafa Hajiaghaei-Keshteli","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126084","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126084","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>As global energy systems transition toward sustainability, green hydrogen has emerged as a pivotal component in achieving clean energy goals. Effective planning of the green hydrogen supply chain is essential to ensure its successful adoption. This study conducts a systematic literature review to identify and analyze key challenges associated with the green hydrogen supply chain in the context of Mexico. With input from an expert panel, six challenges and 31 sub-challenges were identified. Using the fuzzy best-worst method, the critical challenges were prioritized, with social and policy issues, such as uncertainties regarding public acceptance emerging as the most significant, followed by infrastructure limitations, environmental impacts, and economic constraints. Based on these findings, the study proposes a set of targeted policy and managerial recommendations, including the development of regulatory frameworks, investment in storage and transportation infrastructure, the standardization of safety protocols, and public awareness initiatives. These recommendations are intended to guide stakeholders in addressing the most pressing barriers to green hydrogen adoption. Overall, the study emphasizes the need for coordinated efforts among government, industry, and academia to accelerate Mexico's transition to a hydrogen-based energy economy and promote long-term sustainability.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"393 ","pages":"Article 126084"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-05-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143936208","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Mixed logical dynamical modelling of renewable hydrogen refuelling stations for the design of optimization-based operational schemes","authors":"P. Cardona ,&nbsp;L. Valiño ,&nbsp;C. Ocampo-Martinez ,&nbsp;M. Serra","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126037","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126037","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper proposes a Mixed Logical Dynamical (MLD) model for a real-world Hydrogen Refuelling Station (HRS) currently under development, incorporating on-site production, multi-pressure hydrogen storage, and discrete event-triggered refuelling processes. By modelling the HRS using the expanded linear state-space MLD formulation with linear inequality constraints, the model accommodates hydrogen flows, pressure thresholds, and discontinuous behaviour within this unified framework suitable for automatic control/decision-making purposes. To illustrate the usefulness of the proposed modelling approach, a preliminary Hybrid Model Predictive Control (HMPC) scheme and a Constraint Satisfaction Problem (CSP) formulation are proposed, leveraging the MLD structure for optimization-based control and feasibility validation in the face of unpredicted Fuel-Cell Electric Vehicle (FCEV) arrivals. The case of study simulation results highlight how the MLD model addresses the logical and event-triggered behaviours and constraints commonly neglected by aggregated models reported in scheduling-based approaches present in the gross body of literature concerning HRS operation. The implemented HMPC strategy and the CSP statement primarily demonstrate the model’s practical utility. These approaches also hint at their potential for developing advanced operational strategies—ranging from stochastic or multi-level control schemes to distributed architectures—and for deeper sizing analyses or performance assessments of real-world HRSs. Consequently, the proposed modelling approach provides a robust foundation for innovation in hydrogen infrastructure management, bridging essential gaps in the literature by integrating discrete logic decisions, multi-tank refuelling topologies, and online optimization under real operating constraints.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"393 ","pages":"Article 126037"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-05-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143942739","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Data-driven optimal control of fuel cells for frequency regulation: Simulation and experimental validation","authors":"Gi-Ho Lee,&nbsp;Young-Jin Kim","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126068","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126068","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Fuel cells (FCs) have attracted significant attention as a promising technology for enhancing sector coupling and improving grid power balancing in the pursuit of a low-carbon energy system. This paper presents a comprehensive experimental investigation into the operational characteristics of an FC system, including stack temperature, voltage, current, and power. The findings confirm the potential of FC systems to effectively support real-time frequency regulation (FR). An experimental setup was implemented to analyze the dynamic responses of FC systems, and a data-driven model predictive control (MPC) strategy was proposed to optimize power sharing between FC systems and distributed generators (DGs). The MPC strategy enables FC systems to mitigate power supply-and-demand imbalances, while DGs compensate for the remaining imbalances. Small-signal analysis was conducted to assess the contribution and sensitivity of the proposed FR strategy. Comparative experimental case studies further validate the accuracy of the developed FC model and the effectiveness of the proposed control strategy. The results demonstrate that the proposed approach significantly reduces frequency deviations under various grid conditions, including varying net load demands, plug-and-play operations, communication time delays, and various control parameters.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"393 ","pages":"Article 126068"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-05-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143942740","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The role of temperature in mechanical degradation of catalyst coated membrane in fuel cell: A 4D in-situ investigation based on X-ray computed tomography","authors":"Shouwen Shi ,&nbsp;Gaoyuan Xie ,&nbsp;Wei Huang ,&nbsp;Qiang Lin ,&nbsp;Zhihao Sun ,&nbsp;Tiankuo Zhao ,&nbsp;Xu Chen","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126098","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126098","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The application of polymer-electrolyte fuel cells for heavy-duty vehicles requires higher temperature and longer lifetime. However, the effect of temperature on the mechanical degradation mechanisms remains unclear, especially at higher temperature. In this study, the <em>in-situ</em> mechanical degradation behavior of catalyst coated membrane (CCM) is investigated at 70 °C, 80 °C and 90 °C using 4D X-ray computed tomography to track the evolution of mechanical damage throughout the lifetime, with the aim of clarifying the mechanical degradation mechanisms at different temperature to elucidate the role of temperature. Buckling in catalyst layer (CL) is observed at 70 °C, 80 °C and 90 °C, which is thought to be the key factor for mechanical degradation, and the degree of buckling at 90 °C is more severe. The path of buckling in CL is in alignment with cracks in microporous layer (MPL), occurring only in wider MPL crack regions. The deteriorated mechanical properties and increased plastic flow of CCM at higher temperature make CL more vulnerable to buckling, leading to the premature failure and reduced lifetime at 90 °C. In addition, the distribution of cracks at different temperatures is also different. While multiple cracks form due to buckling in the channel area at 90 °C, cracks are observed only at the edge of flow field plate at 70 °C and 80 °C without associated CL buckling progressing into cracks, which is ascribed to the competition between stress in channels and the loading conditions at edges. Finally, mechanisms of mechanical degradation at different temperatures as well as strategies for optimization of fuel cells are proposed.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"393 ","pages":"Article 126098"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-05-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143942823","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Modeling and understanding of multi-step reactions and mass transfer coupling in Li-O2 batteries with mesoscale heterogeneous electrode structures","authors":"Shiyu Zhang ,&nbsp;Shuaiyi Yang ,&nbsp;Haitao Zhu ,&nbsp;Maoyuan Li ,&nbsp;Yifu Chen ,&nbsp;Ya Mao ,&nbsp;Mengyuan Zhou ,&nbsp;Jingying Xie ,&nbsp;Yun Zhang ,&nbsp;Huamin Zhou","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126093","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126093","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Li-O₂ batteries have the highest theoretical specific energy than other battery systems, while the practical value falls significantly short. The full utilization of porous cathodes is limited by the complex coupling of electrochemical reactions and mass transfer in Li-O₂ batteries. In this study, the correlation between the limited mechanism and the coupling behavior is comprehensively investigated through a mesoscale heterogeneous model. By reconstructing the three-dimensional microstructure of the cathode, the model dynamically simulated the coupling behavior including multi-step electrochemical reactions and mass transfer within cathodes. The mass transfer and spatial distribution of reactants and products reveal that two key factors are limiting the full utilization of cathodes: the impeded mass transfer of O₂ and LiO₂ on the separator side, and inactive electrochemical reactions on the gas side as a result of Li₂O₂ deposition. Increasing the porosity of the cathode is found to significantly enhance discharge capacity by improving mass transfer efficiency and ensuring more uniform electrochemical reactions. Furthermore, compared to traditionally porous cathodes, a forward gradient cathode with higher gas-side porosity is proposed to improve discharge capacity by 83 %, while an ordered cathode with vertically cross-arranged structures achieves a 9 % enhancement. These findings not only provide fundamental insights into the improved mechanisms of capacity but also offer guidance for the rational design of advanced electrode structures in high-performance Li-O₂ batteries.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"393 ","pages":"Article 126093"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-05-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143936207","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Collaborative optimization strategy of hydrogen fuel cell train energy and thermal management system based on deep reinforcement learning","authors":"Kangrui Jiang ,&nbsp;Zhongbei Tian ,&nbsp;Tao Wen ,&nbsp;Kejian Song ,&nbsp;Stuart Hillmansen ,&nbsp;Washington Yotto Ochieng","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126057","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126057","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Railway decarbonization has become the main direction of future development of the rail transit industry. Hydrogen fuel cell (HFC) trains have become a competitive potential solution due to their zero carbon emissions and low transformation costs. The high cost of hydrogen, driven by the challenges in storage, transportation, and utilization, remains a major constraint on the commercialization of HFC trains. Temperature has a great impact on the energy conversion efficiency and life of HFC, and its thermal management requirements are more stringent than those of internal combustion engines. Existing HFC train energy management systems (EMS) generally overlook the impact of HFC temperature changes on energy conversion efficiency, and it is difficult to achieve real-time balance control of energy and thermal management according to environmental dynamic conditions. To address this issue, this paper proposes a collaborative optimization energy and thermal management strategy (ETMS) based on deep reinforcement learning (DRL) to minimize hydrogen consumption and control the temperature of the energy supply system near the optimal temperature, while ensuring the dynamic balance of battery charging and discharging. First, a complete physical model of the HFC train is established. Then, the ETMS is modeled as a Markov decision process (MDP), and the agent is trained through an advanced double deep Q-learning algorithm to interact with the real passenger line operation environment to make decisions on the output power of the HFC. Finally, a simulation test was conducted on the Worcester to Hereford line in the West Midlands region of the UK. The results show that within the UK's annual temperature range, the proposed method saves more than 5 % and 2 % of energy compared to the rule-based and GA-based methods, respectively. Additionally, it provides better temperature control and SOC maintenance for the energy supply system.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"393 ","pages":"Article 126057"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-05-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143936209","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exploring the carbon neutrality pathway for China's aluminium industry: An analysis from 1950 to 2060","authors":"Xueyuan Zhu ,&nbsp;Qiang Jin","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126090","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126090","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>China's aluminium industry is responsible for 55 % of the GHG emissions from global aluminium production. With China's ambitious net-zero emission goal, exploring a carbon neutrality pathway for the aluminium industry is essential. In this study, we traced historical GHG emissions from China's aluminium production since 1950, revealing cumulative emissions of 7790 Mt. CO₂ by 2020. The power grid, thermal energy, and anode consumption contributed 66.7 %, 19.1 %, and 9.8 % of the emissions, respectively. Spatial-temporal analysis indicates that the unstable supply of hydropower may hinder the ongoing migration of aluminium production capacity from East and Central China to the Southwest. Decarbonising the power grid in North and Northwest China should be the next priority. Moreover, we proposed six mitigation strategies, including production control, energy conservation, hydrogen application, power grid decarbonisation, inert anode application, and carbon capture. Scenario analysis demonstrates that achieving carbon neutrality by 2060, or even as early as 2053, is feasible. Cost analysis further suggests that, with rising carbon prices, new technologies such as hydrogen production are expected to become cost-competitive around 2050.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"393 ","pages":"Article 126090"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-05-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143935547","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Sim-to-real design and development of reinforcement learning-based energy management strategies for fuel cell electric vehicles","authors":"Nuo Lei ,&nbsp;Hao Zhang ,&nbsp;Jingjing Hu ,&nbsp;Zunyan Hu ,&nbsp;Zhi Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126030","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126030","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The application of reinforcement learning (RL) algorithms in energy management strategies (EMSs) for fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) has shown promising results in simulations. However, transitioning these strategies to real-vehicle implementation remains challenging due to the complexities of vehicle dynamics and system integration. Based on the General Optimal control Problems Solver (GOPS) platform, this paper establishes an RL-based EMS development toolchain that integrates advanced algorithms with high-fidelity vehicle models, leveraging Python-MATLAB/Simulink co-simulation for agent training across Model-in-the-Loop (MiL), Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL), and Vehicle-in-the-Loop (ViL) stages. Besides, the distributional soft actor-critic algorithm (DSAC) is applied to energy management for the first time, embedding the return distribution function into maximum entropy RL. This approach adapts the Q-value function update step size, significantly enhancing strategy performance. Additionally, two RL-based EMS frameworks are investigated: one where the agent directly outputs fuel cell power commands, and another where the agent generates equivalent factors (EF) for the equivalent consumption minimization strategy (ECMS). Simulation and experimental results validate that both RL frameworks achieve superior fuel economy, reducing hydrogen consumption by approximately 4.35 % to 5.73 % compared to benchmarks. By combining Python's algorithmic flexibility and scalability with MATLAB/Simulink's high-fidelity vehicle models, the proposed toolchain provides a robust foundation for real-vehicle applications of RL-based EMSs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"393 ","pages":"Article 126030"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-05-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143935546","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}