Applied Energy最新文献

{"title":"A multi-scenario distributionally robust model for resilience-oriented offshore wind farms and transmission network integrated planning considering typhoon disasters","authors":"Yang Yuan ,&nbsp;Heng Zhang ,&nbsp;Shenxi Zhang ,&nbsp;Haozhong Cheng ,&nbsp;Fangping Chen ,&nbsp;Zheng Wang ,&nbsp;Xiaohu Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125937","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125937","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Existing resilience-oriented offshore wind farms and transmission network integrated planning (ROWF&amp;TNIP) models lack detailed characterization of the uncertainties associated with wind power and grid faults during typhoon disasters, and tend to be relatively conservative in enhancing resilience. To address these limitations, this paper proposes a multi-scenario distributionally robust model for ROWF&amp;TNIP considering typhoon disasters. This model accounts for multiple uncertainties in wind power and grid faults under both normal operation scenario (NOS) and typhoon disaster scenario (TDS), and enhances resilience in a less conservative manner. Firstly, the multi-scenario distributionally robust uncertainty sets for offshore wind farms (OWF) output and grid fault are established: a conditional value-at-risk (CVaR) based multi-scenario budget uncertainty set to capture the uncertainties of wind turbine outputs and turbine failures under NOS and TDS, and a 1-norm grid fault uncertainty set to represent the uncertain probability distribution of four types of fault: high-probability faults, high-loss faults, cascading faults under TDS and fault-free state under NOS. Subsequently, a multi-scenario distributionally robust ROWF&amp;TNIP model is formulated, utilizing the worst-case expected load-shedding cost under TDS as resilience index, the planning and expected generation cost under TDS and NOS as economic index. This model coordinates resilience and economic efficiency under the most adverse realization of uncertain OWF outputs and grid faults. To further mitigate the conservatism of the ROWF&amp;TNIP model, short-term source-grid-load measures, including preventive unit commitment, differential load-shedding and an innovative differential hardening model, are integrated to the planning model. A column and constraint generation (C&amp;CG) based decomposition algorithm is developed to solve the model. In case study section, a series of comparative and sensitivity analyses are conducted on the IEEE-30 bus system and a Chinese 81-bus system to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed model and reveal how key parameters of the model influence the resilience and economy of the planning results.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"392 ","pages":"Article 125937"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-05-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143899836","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"An optimal dispatch strategy for 5G base stations equipped with battery swapping cabinets","authors":"Qi Qi,&nbsp;Deying Zhang,&nbsp;Xiang Hu,&nbsp;Xiao Li,&nbsp;Bing Qi","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125914","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125914","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The escalating deployment of 5G base stations (BSs) and self-service battery swapping cabinets (BSCs) in urban distribution networks has raised concerns regarding electricity consumption and power efficiency due to their significant energy demands and large numbers. To address this challenge, leveraging the idle energy resources in 5G BS and BSC for distribution network dispatch can alleviate their impact on peak-valley differentials and optimize their benefits. Moreover, as BSCs are predominantly situated at communication tower sites, they not only enhance the backup power capacity for communication loads but also share the power supply capacity with 5G BSs. Consequently, coordinating the dispatch of both 5G BS and BSC can result in enhanced cumulative benefits. Therefore, this paper proposes an optimal dispatch strategy for 5G BSs equipped with BSCs. Firstly, a joint dispatch framework is established, where the idle capacity of batteries in 5G BS and BSC responds to time-of-use tariff and demand response signals. Then, the individual and joint dispatchable capabilities of 5G BS and BSC are formulated, considering their energy storage configuration, operational characteristics and service quality constraints. Following this, an optimal dispatch model of the joint system is developed to maximize the daily operational profit for 5G BS and BSC. The soft actor-critic algorithm is then employed to efficiently generate charging and discharging strategies for all dispatchable units, ensuring communication service quality and meeting battery swapping demands. The solution algorithm is trained and tested in a Python simulation environment, with results validating the effectiveness and efficiency of the proposed strategy in ensuring the timely dispatch of 5G BS and BSC while maximizing their economic advantages.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"392 ","pages":"Article 125914"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-05-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143895320","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Breaking new ground: A first-of-its-kind critical analysis of review articles on phase change materials for building applications","authors":"Abrar Ahmad ,&nbsp;Shazim Ali Memon ,&nbsp;Hongtao Dang ,&nbsp;Ahmet Sari ,&nbsp;Osman Gencel","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125984","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125984","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;div&gt;&lt;div&gt;The integration of phase change materials (PCMs) into building envelopes presents an effective approach to improving energy efficiency through enhanced heat storage. By improving energy efficiency and reducing reliance on fossil fuels, PCMs hold significant potential to mitigate the environmental impact of building operations. Despite a wealth of review literature on PCMs, a comprehensive and critical synthesis that consolidates insights, identifies research gaps, and provides a structured perspective remains lacking. Therefore, this study presents a novel and extensive critical review of all available review articles on PCMs, from the first in 1983 to the present, offering a state-of-the-art synthesis that unifies existing knowledge and guides future research and applications. A critical review of 271 review articles is conducted for the first time, providing in-depth insights from the earliest review to the present. While review papers often compile surface-level facts and trends, they may oversimplify or fragment the broader understanding of literature. Therefore, critically evaluating these articles is essential to uncover deeper insights, distinguish substantive findings from superficial observations, and establish consensus on key challenges and potential solutions in the field. This review briefly discusses the categorization of PCMs and their encapsulation techniques and compiles all the commercially available PCMs in tabular form with details of their thermophysical properties. It goes beyond existing studies by addressing a notable omission—many reviews on commercial PCMs do not include detailed information about their manufacturers. To bridge this gap, we have systematically gathered and presented comprehensive manufacturer data, along with direct links to their websites. Our compilation encompasses nearly all commercially available PCMs explored in the literature to date, ensuring that researchers and industry professionals have easy access to verified and exhaustive information. This makes our review a uniquely valuable and practical resource for advancing research and industrial applications. The review also examines PCMs with different natural ventilation strategies, highlighting their potential to enhance indoor thermal comfort and energy efficiency. Furthermore, the economic viability and environmental implications of PCM applications are critically evaluated, accompanied by a detailed life cycle assessment to understand the impact of materials from production to operation and demolition. The application of PCMs in buildings is analyzed in sufficient detail, and challenges and limitations associated with PCM incorporation are thoroughly covered. Extensive opportunities for future research are identified, serving as a roadmap for advancing PCM technology while uncovering unexplored areas and addressing critical gaps in the existing literature. Finally, the review concludes by thoroughly synthesizing all key concepts disc","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"392 ","pages":"Article 125984"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143890621","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"In-situ measurement of RH/T distribution in the straight-channel PEMFC under long-term operation with NEDC mode","authors":"Ngoc Dat Nguyen ,&nbsp;Van Thai Nguyen ,&nbsp;Quan Thien Phan Nghiem ,&nbsp;Jongbin Woo ,&nbsp;Younghyeon Kim ,&nbsp;Sangseok Yu","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125994","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125994","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper presents the development of an experimental system designed to evaluate the durability of a custom-designed single proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) during extended operation, utilizing the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC). In particular, multiple micro-RH/T sensors are installed within the flow field plate channels to enable in-situ measurements of relative humidity and temperature (RH/T) distribution across the PEMFC flow field. Two case studies of 200 h durability test are conducted, incorporating shutdown recovery periods of 15 h and 45 h after every 50 h test block, to investigate the impact of shutdown duration on the PEMFC recovery. Comprehensive analyses focusing on temperature and water behavior demonstrate that the elevated risk of flooding is an unavoidable consequence of water accumulation during prolonged operation. This accumulation adversely affects reactant circulation and compromises the heat and water management capabilities of the PEMFC. Flooding can lead to several detrimental effects, including the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) structural deterioration, the formation of hotspots, and elevated cell temperature, ultimately resulting in accelerated performance degradation. Furthermore, this study highlights that water reduction within the PEMFC during shutdown recovery plays a critical role in enhancing water management and mitigating flooding. Notably, the shutdown recovery procedure restores approximately 60 % of performance losses after a 15 h shutdown. However, extended shutdown durations result in excessive water depletion, reducing recovery effectiveness to an average of 48 % after 45 h shutdown periods.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"392 ","pages":"Article 125994"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143890622","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Techno-economic analysis of electrochemical carbon capture from oceanwater integrated with hydrates-based sequestration","authors":"Mark Hamalian,&nbsp;Awan Bhati,&nbsp;Karey Maynor,&nbsp;Vaibhav Bahadur","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125960","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125960","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Carbon capture and sequestration (CCS) will play a crucial role in reducing the negative effects of climate change, with a projected 10 GtCO₂/yr capacity needed by 2050. Along with scientific research, comprehensive techno-economic analyses (TEA) are needed to analyze the economic attractiveness of various CCS concepts being proposed. Presently, a TEA was conducted for a novel CCS concept which integrates indirect ocean capture (IOC) with carbon dioxide (CO₂) hydrates-based sequestration (HBS) using existing offshore platforms. Crucially, there is no CO₂ transportation involved due to onsite seabed sequestration. Furthermore, water pumping distances are significantly reduced (in comparison to coastal IOC plants), which reduces the costs noticeably. The proposed concept does not require desalination, which further improves prospects for implementation. For a 25-yr, 1 MtCO₂/yr project, the total levelized cost for capture and sequestration is 1130 $/tCO₂; CO₂ capture accounts for 97 % of the cost (with water pretreatment dominating costs). Contributions of various processes to the total cost are quantified and a sensitivity analysis conducted to identify avenues for cost reduction. A combined best case of parameters reduces the cost to 887 $/tCO₂ and 25 $/tCO₂ for capture and sequestration, respectively. Preliminary thermodynamics-based analysis in the Gulf of Mexico identifies more than 75 existing offshore platforms which can host such CCS projects.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"392 ","pages":"Article 125960"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-04-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143887947","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A robust optimization approach for enabling flexibility, self-sufficiency, and environmental sustainability in a local multi-carrier energy community","authors":"Sobhan Dorahaki ,&nbsp;Mojgan MollahassaniPour ,&nbsp;Masoud Rashidinejad ,&nbsp;S.M. Muyeen ,&nbsp;Pierluigi Siano ,&nbsp;Miadreza Shafie-Khah","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125997","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125997","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Managing Local Multi-Carrier Energy Communities (LMCECs) has become increasingly complex due to the need to balance sustainability, flexibility, and economic performance in modern energy systems. This challenge is further compounded by uncertainties in energy supply and demand, necessitating advanced optimization approaches. To address this, a robust optimization model has been developed to enable LMCECs to effectively participate in programs emphasizing flexibility, self-sufficiency, and environmental sustainability. The model incorporates electrical flexibility constraints to enhance practical applicability and allows the LMCEC manager to adopt emissions limits recommended by upstream energy networks, promoting environmentally conscious operations. By prioritizing self-sufficiency, the model not only strengthens the resilience of LMCECs but also improves their operational efficiency. Results demonstrate the model's effectiveness in handling uncertainties while minimizing operational costs, achieving an average optimal self-sufficiency rate of 76.36 %. This represents a significant step forward in advancing sustainable and resilient energy management practices. Moreover, a comparison between the robust optimization approach and both the deterministic and Distributionally Robust Chance-Constrained (DRCC) methods highlights the superior performance of the proposed robust optimization under worst-case scenarios.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"392 ","pages":"Article 125997"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-04-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143890726","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Sharing energy in wider area: A two-layer energy sharing scheme for massive prosumers","authors":"Yifan Su ,&nbsp;Peng Yang ,&nbsp;Kai Kang ,&nbsp;Zhaojian Wang ,&nbsp;Ning Qi ,&nbsp;Tonghua Liu ,&nbsp;Feng Liu","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125968","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125968","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The popularization of distributed energy resources transforms end-users from consumers into prosumers. Inspired by the sharing economy principle, energy sharing markets for prosumers are proposed to facilitate the utilization of renewable energy. This paper proposes a novel two-layer energy sharing market for massive prosumers, which can promote social efficiency by wider-area sharing. In this market, there is an upper-layer energy sharing market (U-ESM) in the distribution system and numerous lower-layer energy sharing markets (L-ESMs) in local communities. Prosumers in the same community share energy with each other in the L-ESM, which can be uncleared. The energy surplus and shortage of L-ESMs are cleared in the U-ESM. Thanks to the wider-area two-layer structure, the market outcome is near-social-optimal in large-scale systems. However, the proposed market forms a complex mathematical program with equilibrium constraints (MPEC). To solve the problem, we propose an efficient and hierarchically distributed bidding algorithm. The proposed two-layer market and bidding algorithm are verified on the IEEE 123-bus system with 11,250 prosumers, which demonstrates the practicality and efficiency for large-scale markets.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"392 ","pages":"Article 125968"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-04-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143890725","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exploring the potential of wet biomass gasification with SOFC and ICE cogeneration technologies: process design, simulation and comparative thermodynamic analysis","authors":"Mauro Prestipino ,&nbsp;Orlando Corigliano ,&nbsp;Antonio Galvagno ,&nbsp;Antonio Piccolo ,&nbsp;Petronilla Fragiacomo","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125998","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125998","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This research undertakes the engineering, detailed simulation, and thermodynamic analysis of an integrated cogeneration system based on wet biomass gasification, coupled with Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC) and Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) power units. The selection of wet biomass feedstock introduces originality from an energy perspective, presenting significant challenges in process integration while offering new avenues for the sustainable utilization of such residues. The layouts are designed to ensure energy self-sustainability.</div><div>The modeling development culminates in a comprehensive algorithm that captures the system's complexities, with each power unit mapped and analyzed. Matlab is employed for simulating and analyzing the SOFC, which is fundamental for selecting the working point and scaling up the plant, while ICE is modeled using a data-driven approach. The integrated systems are simulated using AVEVA PRO/II Simulation software. A comparative thermodynamic analysis is performed between the two system layouts to assess strengths and weaknesses.</div><div>Salient numerical results indicate a net electric yield of 1.41 MWh·t_db⁻¹ and 0.91 MWh·t_db⁻¹ for SOFC and ICE layouts respectively. The exergy efficiencies are 28.9 % and 18.7 % for the SOFC and ICE systems, respectively, while the sustainability indexes are 1.37 and 1.23.</div><div>The detailed exergy analysis detects the primary sources of irreversibilities and identifies opportunities for energetic improvements in both layouts.</div><div>This work serves as a methodological guide for designing integrated wet biomass gasifier-SOFC/ICE systems, offering insight into the Balance of Plant energy behavior, developing case studies, and addressing gaps in the literature on comparing these processes under identical conditions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"392 ","pages":"Article 125998"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-04-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143887879","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Multi-agent deep reinforcement learning based demand response and energy management for heavy industries with discrete manufacturing systems","authors":"Atit Bashyal,&nbsp;Tina Boroukhian,&nbsp;Pakin Veerachanchai,&nbsp;Myanganbayar Naransukh,&nbsp;Hendro Wicaksono","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125990","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125990","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Energy-centric decarbonization of heavy industries, such as steel and cement, necessitates their participation in integrating Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and effective Demand Response (DR) programs. This situation has created the opportunities to research control algorithms in diverse DR scenarios. Further, the industrial sector’s unique challenges, including the diversity of operations and the need for uninterrupted production, bring unique challenges in designing and implementing control algorithms. Reinforcement learning (RL) methods are practical solutions to the unique challenges faced by the industrial sector. Nevertheless, research in RL for industrial demand response has not yet achieved the level of standardization seen in other areas of RL research, hindering broader progress. To propel the research progress, we propose a multi-agent reinforcement learning (MARL)-based energy management system designed to optimize energy consumption in energy-intensive industrial settings by leveraging dynamic pricing DR schemes. The study highlights the creation of a MARL environment and addresses these challenges by designing a general framework that allows researchers to replicate and implement MARL environments for industrial sectors. The proposed framework incorporates a Partially Observable Markov Decision Process (POMDP) to model energy consumption and production processes while introducing buffer storage constraints and a flexible reward function that balances production efficiency and cost reduction. The paper evaluates the framework through experimental validation within a steel powder manufacturing facility. The experimental results validate our framework and also demonstrate the effectiveness of the MARL-based energy management system.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"392 ","pages":"Article 125990"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-04-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143890724","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Hydrogen production performance optimization for direct-coupled photovoltaic electrolysis systems based on a novel 3D opto-electro-thermal model","authors":"Hao Wang,&nbsp;Weiding Wang,&nbsp;Chuanjie Lin,&nbsp;Yongquan Lai,&nbsp;Changchen Li,&nbsp;Ziyou Xu,&nbsp;Yuanbo Yang,&nbsp;Yimin Yang,&nbsp;Wenxuan Dong,&nbsp;Jinzhan Su","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125961","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.125961","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Photovoltaic-powered electrolysis systems represent a promising approach for large-scale renewable energy storage, with direct-coupled systems offering particular advantages in terms of reduced system complexity and cost. However, a mismatch issue between photovoltaic (PV) and electrolysis (EC) modules of these systems could be caused by suboptimal structural design and flow rate control strategies, leading to a significant reduction in hydrogen production performance. While these problems could potentially be addressed through numerical simulation, existing low-dimension models are overly simplified due to the assumptions of spatial homogeneity, failing to adequately capture the intricate coupling mechanisms among optical, thermal, electrical and gas-liquid flow phenomena in these complex systems. In this study, a novel 3D opto-electro-thermal model has been developed for direct-coupled systems, utilizing semiconductor drift-diffusion equations and a gas-liquid two-phase flow model within each grid cell. This advanced model facilitates comprehensive performance assessments during the optimization of the fundamental system structure (PV-EC), including the evaluation of novel system configurations that integrate photovoltaic/thermal (PV/T) and contact-based thermal designs. Additionally, it could help to streamline flow rate control by optimizing the relative sizing between the membrane electrode assembly (MEA) of EC and PV modules. The results demonstrate that the PV/T-EC Non-thermal integration structure achieves the maximum Solar-to-Hydrogen efficiency (<em>STH</em>). Moreover, by setting the relative sizing at 2.25 %, maintaining the flow rate in a wide range without precise control could be sufficient to achieve outstanding and stable <em>STH</em> under real-world fluctuating conditions. This allows the flow rate control strategy to be effectively streamlined. The findings could provide guidance for optimizing hydrogen production performance by refining system structure and flow rate control strategy in direct-coupled photovoltaic electrolysis systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"392 ","pages":"Article 125961"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-04-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143887877","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}