Applied EnergyPub Date : 2025-07-17DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126413
Ziheng Zhu , Shiping Ma , Hanjie Mao , Junting Zhong , Lifeng Guo , Deying Wang , Junling Huang , Changhong Miao , Xiaoye Zhang , Xiliang Zhang , Da Zhang
{"title":"Spatial planning for China’s renewable energy expansion toward 2030","authors":"Ziheng Zhu , Shiping Ma , Hanjie Mao , Junting Zhong , Lifeng Guo , Deying Wang , Junling Huang , Changhong Miao , Xiaoye Zhang , Xiliang Zhang , Da Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126413","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126413","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>China is rapidly advancing renewable energy deployment to decarbonize the power system and meet its ambitious climate targets. However, existing energy models have limitations in simulating resource availability, generation variability, and grid integration in a consistent framework with high temporal and spatial resolution, making it difficult for them to effectively guide policy formulation. In this paper, we develop a model that can co-optimize capacity expansion and operation for China’s power system at the hourly level in a full year and a grid cell level of <span><math><msup><mn>0.1</mn><mrow><mo>∘</mo></mrow></msup><mstyle><mspace></mspace></mstyle><mo>×</mo><mstyle><mspace></mspace></mstyle><msup><mn>0.1</mn><mrow><mo>∘</mo></mrow></msup></math></span> for wind and solar power deployment, which is unprecedented in terms of temporal and spatial resolution. Applying this modeling tool to inform renewable deployment during the 15th Five-Year Plan (2026-2030), we find that China will have cumulatively 766 GW of wind power and 1880 GW of solar power installations to generate 4.9 PWh/yr by 2030 in the base case, close to the coal power output (5.3 PWh/yr). We further find that onshore wind installations are concentrated in the “Three North” regions, offshore wind installations are concentrated along the coasts of Fujian, Zhejiang, and Guangdong, and large-scale solar installations are scattered in northern, eastern, and southern China. An additional 350 GW of inter-provincial ultra-high voltage transmission and 1200 GWh of energy storage will be installed during the 15th Five-Year Plan to balance the increased renewable installations. The simulated marginal cost of electricity production reveals an increased variability, presenting challenges for power market regulations. It is recommended to prioritize spatial planning for renewable energy installations and related industries, and emphasize the critical role of cost-effective storage technologies and ultra-high voltage inter-provincial transmissions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"398 ","pages":"Article 126413"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-07-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144657143","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Applied EnergyPub Date : 2025-07-17DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126460
Hayk H. Nersisyan , Jong Hyeon Lee
{"title":"Combustion structuring of 3D nano- and microspheres: Advances and prospects for catalysis and energy storage","authors":"Hayk H. Nersisyan , Jong Hyeon Lee","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126460","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126460","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This review explores the combustion-driven structuring of three-dimensional nano- and microspheres (N&MSs) composed of various inorganic materials, including metals, alloys, non-metals, and binary and complex metal oxides. The introduction provides an overview of key synthesis techniques for N&MSs, with a focus on three combustion-based methods: self-propagating high-temperature synthesis (SHS), solution combustion synthesis (SCS), and flame synthesis (FS). <span><span>Section 2</span></span> examines the fundamental mechanisms governing microsphere formation and the thermodynamic and kinetic models influencing this process. <span><span>Section 3</span></span> details combustion-based approaches for fabricating dense and hollow N&MSs via SHS, SCS, and FS, critically analyzing how reaction time, flame temperature, reaction medium, and the choice of reactants and solvents impact particle morphology and size. <span><span>Section 4</span></span> highlights the applications of N&MSs in energy storage, catalysis, sensing, and drug delivery. Finally, Section 5 discusses the advantages and limitations of combustion synthesis for nano- and microsphere production, offering perspectives on future research directions in this rapidly evolving field.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"398 ","pages":"Article 126460"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-07-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144657141","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Applied EnergyPub Date : 2025-07-17DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126411
Ali Zardehi-Tabriz , Hadiseh Anavi , Yoones Ghayebzadeh , Marzieh Golshan , Mehdi Salami-Kalajahi
{"title":"An overview on lithiated materials as an effective approach for improving battery performance","authors":"Ali Zardehi-Tabriz , Hadiseh Anavi , Yoones Ghayebzadeh , Marzieh Golshan , Mehdi Salami-Kalajahi","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126411","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126411","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Nowadays, lithium batteries (Li-ion, Li<img>S, and Li<img>O<sub>2</sub>) have received lots of attention due to their applications. The quest forcreating an “ideal battery” that meets the needs of humans has always been a difficultchallenge. Achieving this goes beyond simply selecting the right electrolyte. In addition to having strong mechanical properties, an ideal electrolyte should also possess a lithium transference number of unity, high ionic conductivity at room temperature, and a wide electrochemical window. Many polymer electrolytes exhibit good mechanical properties and electrochemical stability windows, and if lithiated, they can also demonstrate high ionic conductivity and a good lithium transference number. The process of “lithiation” involves the addition of lithium to a material's structure either chemically or through lithium-containing particles. This process is not limited to just electrolytes and separators, but can also be utilized in the artificial solid electrolyte interphase and electrode binders in lithium batteries which can result in improvement of battery cyclic performance during the charge-discharge process. This can result in benefits like a higher lithium transference number, increased ion conductivity, the creation of Li<sup>+</sup> pathways, enhanced electrode/electrolyte interface, and reduced dendrite growth, ultimately leading to improved overall battery performance. Therefore, the use of lithiation as a method to move closer to achieving the “ideal electrolyte” and ultimately the “ideal battery” is explored in this review article.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"398 ","pages":"Article 126411"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-07-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144656174","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Applied EnergyPub Date : 2025-07-16DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126434
Fuxiang Li , Yunren Sui , Haosheng Lin , Zengguang Sui , Wei Wu
{"title":"High-resolution modeling and multiscale experiment study of photovoltaic with reverse-biased cell","authors":"Fuxiang Li , Yunren Sui , Haosheng Lin , Zengguang Sui , Wei Wu","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126434","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126434","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Photovoltaic (PV) is critical in the global energy transition. One significant obstacle to their efficiency and reliability is partial shading conditions (PSC). In-depth mechanistic understandings of PV electrical behavior are essential to predict and mitigate this issue. Yet, existing research has not adequately addressed this issue through experiment investigation and model development. This research endeavors to explore these concerns systematically, employing a multiscale approach that integrates both experimental and numerical techniques. At the cell level, a measurement platform is developed to characterize the solar cell current-voltage (I-V) behavior under different conditions (200–1200 W/m<sup>2</sup>, 20–60 °C). Measurement results reveal that irradiance always affects the cell I-V behavior, while temperature only affects the forward-biased cell. The in-depth analysis contributes to a novel numerical model with a full-range parameter extraction method, allowing an accurate I-V estimation from reverse-biased to forward-biased regions. Based on this, a field experiment is conducted at the module level under uniform irradiance conditions and PSCs. The results found shading causes a collapsed I-V curve in the PV module, leading to power loss and localized hot spots. Fully activated bypass diodes can mitigate this phenomenon but will generate staircase-shaped I-V curves. These findings promote a high-performance framework for accurate PV simulation without neglecting reverse-biased effects. Impressively, this framework maintains a maximum relative error below 6 % under various shading patterns. This multiscale research provides insights into realistic PV behaviors and power loss patterns. The proposed PV simulator encapsulates these insights, ensuring heightened accuracy and resolution.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"398 ","pages":"Article 126434"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-07-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144634000","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Applied EnergyPub Date : 2025-07-16DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126429
Naghmash Ali, Xinwei Shen, Hammad Armghan
{"title":"A hybrid approach involving data driven forecasting and super twisting control action for low-carbon microgrids","authors":"Naghmash Ali, Xinwei Shen, Hammad Armghan","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126429","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126429","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This research paper introduces a two-level dense residual neural network-based optimization framework designed to enhance the efficiency of energy management systems in microgrids. The framework addresses the shortcomings of conventional numerical optimization methods for solving the economic dispatch problem, which often prioritize accuracy over real-time performance and fail to maximize power generation from renewable energy sources. The proposed framework’s upper-level control not only solves the economic dispatch problem but also optimizes power output from renewable sources. At the local level, a super-twisting sliding mode control is employed to accurately track EMS-generated references and ensure precise DC bus regulation. The stability of the framework is validated using Lyapunov stability criteria. The framework is tested on a 600 V electric-hydrogen based islanded microgrid system with a 550 kW capacity. Real-time simulations are validated through hardware-in-the-loop experiments using the OPAL-RT OP5707XG.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"398 ","pages":"Article 126429"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-07-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144633953","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Applied EnergyPub Date : 2025-07-16DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126403
So-Bin Cho , Sam J. Root , Rami M. Saeed , Temitayo O. Olowu , Amey Shigrekar , Tyler L. Westover
{"title":"Microreactor-liquid metal battery system in energy markets: An evaluation of potential costs, technology, and policy impacts","authors":"So-Bin Cho , Sam J. Root , Rami M. Saeed , Temitayo O. Olowu , Amey Shigrekar , Tyler L. Westover","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126403","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126403","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Microreactors represent an emerging innovation in the nuclear industry; yet have been overshadowed by their high capital costs. With the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022 (IRA), new opportunities have emerged to improve the economics of microreactor systems. This work examines liquid metal batteries (LMB) as a value-adding technology as part of microreactor-LMB systems within three U.S. electricity markets: ERCOT, PJM, and MISO. Our investigation considers key uncertainties: the cost of microreactors, the performance of LMBs, and the eligible tax credit levels. To this end, we use a dispatch optimization to trace not only the changes in system economics but also to provide a granular picture of energy delivery within the systems. We find that even with favorable costs for microreactors, significant regional variations in the project sizing and returns exist across the markets. Our heuristic method identifies their non-electric application potentials beyond electricity and technical requirements to maximize returns. The results suggest that 12–39 % of reactor heat could be cost-effectively diverted to produce more valuable by-products in U.S. markets. Including the impacts of tax credits, we establish the outcomes of each provision with varying rates. Coupling an LMB to a microreactor consistently improves the net present value of a microreactor compared to its standalone operation. For reasonable assumed conditions, we quantify a heterogeneous impact of round-trip efficiency (RTE) and extended LMB service life across the three markets—a one-year extension in LMB service life is roughly equivalent to a 2.11 % improvement in RTE for ERCOT, 1.16 % for PJM, and 1.04 % for MISO.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"398 ","pages":"Article 126403"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-07-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144633952","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Applied EnergyPub Date : 2025-07-16DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126357
Muhammad Kazim , Harun Pirim , Om Prakash Yadav , Chau Le , Trung Le
{"title":"Analysis of multilayer energy networks: A comprehensive literature review","authors":"Muhammad Kazim , Harun Pirim , Om Prakash Yadav , Chau Le , Trung Le","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126357","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126357","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The increasing complexity of modern energy systems, driven by renewable integration, decentralized infrastructure, and cross-sector interdependencies, necessitates advanced analytical frameworks beyond single-layer models to address interdependencies, cascading failures, and resilience. Multilayer Network Theory (MLNT) offers a robust framework for modeling interactions across diverse energy carriers (e.g., electricity, gas, and heat), providing critical insights into scalability, sustainability, and fault resilience. However, despite its potential, no comprehensive review has systematically examined MLNT’s applications in multi-energy systems (MES). This paper fills this gap by synthesizing interdisciplinary research from 2014 to 2024 to assess MLNT’s role in advancing energy systems.</div><div>This review uses bibliometric techniques (VOSviewer) to identify dominant research themes, including integrated energy systems and resource optimization, sustainability analysis in multilayer energy networks, smart grid communication, network topology, and cascading failure mitigation. Machine learning (ML) emerges as a key enabler of MLNT, employing advanced techniques such as graph neural networks (GNNs), reinforcement learning, and hybrid models to enhance predictive accuracy, real-time adaptation, and dynamic fault detection. Practical implementations, including Integrated Energy Systems (IES) and Virtual Power Plants (VPPs), demonstrate the synergy between ML and MLNT in addressing challenges such as synchronization, fault isolation, and renewable energy variability. While MLNT has been widely applied in biology, finance, and transportation, its adoption in energy systems remains limited. Drawing insights from these domains, this review illustrates how multilayer models can improve fault detection, enhance cascading failure mitigation, and optimize cross-layer coordination in modern energy infrastructures, paving the way for more resilient and adaptive smart grids.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"398 ","pages":"Article 126357"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-07-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144633999","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Applied EnergyPub Date : 2025-07-16DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126404
Jerson Sanchez , Jie Cai
{"title":"Building demand response control through constrained reinforcement learning with linear policies","authors":"Jerson Sanchez , Jie Cai","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126404","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126404","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Recent advancements in model-free control strategies, particularly reinforcement learning (RL), have enabled more practical and scalable solutions for controlling building energy systems. These strategies rely solely on data, eliminating the need for complex models of building dynamics during control decision making, the development of which is expensive involving significant engineering efforts. Conventional unconstrained RL controllers typically manage indoor comfort by incorporating a penalty for comfort violations into the reward function. This penalty function approach leads to control performance very sensitive to the penalty factor setting. A low comfort penalty factor can result in significant violations of comfort constraints while a high penalty factor tends to degrade economic performance. To address this issue, the present study presents a constrained RL-based control strategy for building demand response that explicitly learns a constraint value function from operation data. This study considers both linear mapping and deep neural networks for value and policy function approximation to evaluate their training stability and control performance in terms of economic return and constraint satisfaction. Simulation tests of the proposed strategy, as well as baseline model predictive controllers (MPC) and unconstrained RL strategies, demonstrate that the constrained RL approach could achieve utility cost savings of up to 16.1 %, comparable to those achieved with MPC baselines, while minimizing constraint violations. In contrast, the unconstrained RL controllers either lead to high utility costs or significant constraint violations, depending on the penalty factor settings. The constrained RL strategy with linear policy and value functions shows more stable training and offers 4 % additional cost savings with reduced constraint violations compared to constrained RL controllers with neural networks.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"398 ","pages":"Article 126404"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-07-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144633954","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Applied EnergyPub Date : 2025-07-16DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126435
Nan Zhang , Liuliu Du-Ikonen , Xiaojie Lin , Wei Zhong , Mikko Ropo , Long Jiang
{"title":"Coordinated scheduling and carbon flow tracing of discrete manufacturing processes with integrated energy-material-carbon flows model","authors":"Nan Zhang , Liuliu Du-Ikonen , Xiaojie Lin , Wei Zhong , Mikko Ropo , Long Jiang","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126435","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126435","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>With the rapid development of renewable energy and carbon accounting across industrial sectors, enhancing demand response capabilities and quantifying emissions have become critical for the decarbonization of production processes. However, production lines typically exhibit complex couplings among energy, material, and carbon flows, characterized by hybrid discrete-continuous dynamics. Current research still lacks a generalized model for coordinated scheduling optimization. This paper proposes a coordinated scheduling framework with unified energy and material flow (EMF) matrices modeling, and reveals the impact of EMF coupling and flexible production plans on scheduling performance. Additionally, the embodied carbon flow model in manufacturing processes is developed by defining material carbon intensity and product carbon emission flow rates. The mechanisms of carbon transmission within the EMF network are revealed to quantify product carbon footprints and allocate carbon responsibility. Then, the carbon intensity and allocation across all system nodes are quantified to provide systematic insights for industrial sustainability. Based on this framework, a coordinated rescheduling strategy is applied to an air conditioning production line, aiming to minimize both costs and carbon emissions across metal fabrication, injection molding, and components assembly processes. The energy usage results indicate a 15.9 % costs reduction and an 8.2 % carbon emissions decrease. Furthermore, the integrated flexibility of EMF is demonstrated through the convex formation of the projected feasible region. It shows that flexible production plan optimization enhances flexibility by 9.2 times, thereby enhancing peak shaving capacity for demand response by 18.38 %.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"398 ","pages":"Article 126435"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-07-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144633951","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Applied EnergyPub Date : 2025-07-15DOI: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126444
Zuoning Jia, Kun An
{"title":"Multi-depot battery electric bus scheduling and charging coordination under resource limitations","authors":"Zuoning Jia, Kun An","doi":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126444","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126444","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Battery electric buses (BEBs) have gained significant popularity in metropolitan cities due to their environmental benefits. However, their limited range and long charging times pose challenges in optimizing vehicle scheduling and charging plans. To address these challenges, this study proposes a joint optimization model for BEB scheduling and charging across multiple lines and depots, incorporating charging infrastructure capacity constraints. The model employs a time-space network representation while innovatively eliminating vehicle-indexed variables, yet still accurately tracks state-of-charge (SOC) dynamics. We develop an adaptive large neighborhood search (ALNS) algorithm enhanced with two key sub-routines: (1) an SOC adjustment mechanism during the repair phase and (2) a charger/power allocation adjustment procedure. These sub-routines enable dynamic coordination between charging and scheduling decisions throughout the iterative optimization process. The proposed framework is validated using real-world operational data from Jiading District, Shanghai, China. Computational experiments demonstrate that our ALNS algorithm achieves an 88.7 % reduction in solution time compared to GUROBI for a 105-trip instance while maintaining solution quality. Moreover, the method scales effectively, solving a large-scale 460-trip scenario within 0.6 h.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":246,"journal":{"name":"Applied Energy","volume":"398 ","pages":"Article 126444"},"PeriodicalIF":10.1,"publicationDate":"2025-07-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144631865","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}