Toxicon最新文献

{"title":"Melittin: A promising therapeutic agent for rheumatoid arthritis treatment","authors":"Rong Huang ,&nbsp;Xiying He ,&nbsp;Qingxin Meng ,&nbsp;Guangyu Yan ,&nbsp;Kun Dong ,&nbsp;Yakai Tian","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108335","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108335","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA) is a globally prevalent chronic disease that presents significant challenges in terms of curability. The etiology and onset of RA are not readily identifiable, and as the disease advances, it is characterized by joint pain, swelling, and damage, potentially resulting in paralysis. The adverse effects associated with existing pharmacological treatments are considerable, and prolonged use may pose significant health risks. Melittin, a naturally occurring anti-rheumatic compound, has garnered increasing scholarly interest. Melittin has demonstrated the potential to significantly augment the therapeutic efficacy of certain first-line pharmacological agents while minimizing adverse effects, thereby rendering it appropriate for prolonged use. Melittin's mechanisms of action in treating RA encompass anti-inflammatory effects, immunomodulatory effects, analgesic effects, reduction of cardiovascular disease risk, and organ-protective effects, targeting multiple aspects of RA to alleviate symptoms. Clarifying the biological functions of melittin and its mechanisms in treating RA can provide valuable insights for the application of melittin in the intervention of RA disease progression. However, melittin can cause allergic reactions, hemolysis, and cytotoxicity in the body, which limit its application. Research has shown that strategies including melittin-based nanomodification, immunoconjugation, and structural regulation can improve the specificity of melittin, decrease cytotoxicity, and mitigate the lytic effects on non-target cells of bee venom. These findings suggest that melittin holds promise for clinical applications. This article provides a comprehensive overview of the disease progression associated with RA, examines the biological properties of Mmelittin, and discusses therapeutic strategies for utilizing melittin in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis. The objective is to mitigate the toxic side effects of melittin while enhancing its targeted anti-inflammatory effects, thereby investigating its potential clinical value in the prevention of rheumatoid arthritis.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"258 ","pages":"Article 108335"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143731355","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Using corn cob powder to induce AFB1-degrading enzyme production in Cladosporium uredinicola HSK8 for detoxification purposes","authors":"Mengxiong Xiang ,&nbsp;Ernuo Tian ,&nbsp;Shuting Wang ,&nbsp;Siyao Wang ,&nbsp;Runmei Zhang ,&nbsp;Jianyi Guo ,&nbsp;Ming Liu ,&nbsp;Qiang Ding ,&nbsp;Jun Cai","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108333","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108333","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Aflatoxin B₁ (AFB₁) is a highly toxic mycotoxin that contaminates food sources and poses serious health risks. This study examines <em>Cladosporium uredinicola</em> HSK8's ability to degrade AFB₁. It was demonstrated that the hydrolysis of corn cob powder, following high-temperature treatment, generates derivatives such as furfural and vanillin, which stimulate the production of various AFB₁-degrading enzymes by <em>C. uredinicola</em> HSK8. The total enzymatic activity reached a peak of 3750 U/mL in fermentation broth with 3 % corn cob powder. Two AFB₁-degrading enzymes were further isolated, purified and analyzed. The results showed that enzymes can disrupt both the furan and benzene rings, exhibiting strong catalytic activity. The results suggested corn cob powder as a complex carbon source not only promotes the growth of <em>C. uredinicola</em> but also induces the production of AFB₁-degrading enzymes. Therefore, the fermentation broth of <em>C. uredinicola</em> HSK8 cultured with corn cob powder holds great potential for the detoxification of AFB₁ in food and feed.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"258 ","pages":"Article 108333"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143725493","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Production and characterization of pertussis toxin specific monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies: Implication for toxin purification and detection","authors":"Danyal Imani ,&nbsp;Tannaz Bahadori ,&nbsp;Maryam Mobini ,&nbsp;Mohammad Ali Judaki ,&nbsp;Mahmood Jeddi-Tehrani ,&nbsp;Mohammad Mehdi Amiri ,&nbsp;Fazel Shokri","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108334","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108334","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Pertussis is a pulmonary disease caused by the gram-negative bacteria Bordetella pertussis (<em>BP</em>) with a high fatality rate among newborns and young children. Pertussis toxin (PT) is essential for pertussis pathogenesis as well as production of acellular pertussis vaccines (aPV). Traditional PT purification procedures are laborious and yield low purity and recovery rates. Also, due to the low production levels of PT by <em>BP</em> and the difficulties of purification, an appropriate immunoassay is needed to monitor PT concentrations upstream and downstream of the production process. This study investigates production and application of monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies for efficient PT purification and quantification.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Rabbits and mice were immunized with native PT to produce polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies (MAbs). The MAbs were selected based on affinity, isotype and specificity, as determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and immunoblotting. The native PT antigen was purified using an immunoaffinity column. The purity and recovery rates of native PT were analyzed by ELISA, SDS-PAGE, and immunoblotting. Additionally, monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies were used to establish an ELISA assay for measurement of PT concentration.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>A highly pure PT with recovery rates of around 74 ± 4.9 % was obtained following purification by immunoaffinity column, using polyclonal antibodies. Furthermore, the designed ELISA demonstrated suitable reactivity for measurement of the PT antigen.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>Our results indicate suitability of the produced monoclonal and polyclonal anti-PT antibodies for purification and monitoring of PT by immunoaffinity chromatography and ELISA, respectively. The immunoaffinity method offers an efficient replacement for PT purification in the context of developing aPV.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"258 ","pages":"Article 108334"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143731280","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Antitumor and antiproliferative potential of crotoxin in triple negative breast tumors","authors":"De Andrade Camila Marques ,&nbsp;Machado Cleni Mara Marzocchi ,&nbsp;De Castro Fabíola Attié ,&nbsp;Teixeira Natércia ,&nbsp;Amaral Cristina ,&nbsp;Campos Felipe ,&nbsp;Canicoba Nathália Cristina ,&nbsp;Torqueti Maria Regina","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108322","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108322","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Triple negative breast carcinoma represents around 15 % of breast cancer cases. Is a type of breast cancer with poor prognosis, because it has a high rate of recurrence, metastasis and death and can be resistant to therapy. The recommended treatment is the use of anthracyclines with taxanes, however, these medications have several side effects. Thus, there is a need for new therapeutic approaches. Crotoxin, the main toxin found in the venom of the South American rattlesnake <em>Crotalus durissus terrificus</em>, is a potent β-neurotoxin that has phospholipase A2 (PLA2) activity. It exhibits preferential cytotoxic activity against several types of tumor cells and is most cytotoxic to cell lines that express high levels of epidermal growth factor receptors. Considering this, in this study, we evaluated the biological mechanisms that trigger the antitumor effects of crotoxin in a cell line representing triple negative breast carcinoma (MDA-MB-231 tumor cells). Results demonstrated that crotoxin had anti-apoptotic, anti-autophagic and pro-necrotic actions. The pro-necrotic effect occurred through mechanisms of apoptosis evasion, autophagy inhibition and DNA damage. Therefore, this study represents an important milestone to better understand the effects and mechanisms of action of crotoxin in triple negative breast cancer.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"258 ","pages":"Article 108322"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143693415","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effects of Androctonus mauritanicus envenomation on an experimental mouse model of pregnancy and on mouse offspring","authors":"Mehdi Ait Laaradia ,&nbsp;Sara Oufquir ,&nbsp;Jawad Laadraoui ,&nbsp;Zineb El Gabbas ,&nbsp;Zakaria Tazart ,&nbsp;Mohamed Daoudi ,&nbsp;Loubna Elyazouli ,&nbsp;Abderrahman Chait","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108328","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108328","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Scorpion envenomation is a public health issue in Morocco, where <em>Androctonus mauritanicus</em> is considered the most dangerous scorpion. This scorpion is well adapted to urban environments, and the likelihood of human exposure to its venom is increasingly high, including during pregnancy.</div><div>This study was designed to investigate whether a single subcutaneous injection of venom at a moderate envenomation dose in pregnant mice could lead to detrimental effects on maternal reproductive performance and offspring development.</div><div>Prior to examining developmental neurotoxicity, we assessed the acute toxicity of <em>Androctonus mauritanicus</em> venom in mice. Subsequently, the venom (200 μg/kg) was administered to pregnant mice on gestational day 5 (GD5), 10 (GD10), or 15 (GD15). Using neurobehavioral, developmental, hematological, and biochemical approaches, we investigated the consequences of <em>Androctonus mauritanicus</em> envenomation in pregnant mice. Additionally, we examined the role of oxidative stress in the venom's deleterious effects on reproductive performance and offspring development.</div><div>Our results show that <em>Androctonus mauritanicus</em> venom induces similar envenomation symptoms in pregnant and non-pregnant mice but causes vaginal bleeding and abortions when administered on gestational days 10 and 15. The venom also triggered biochemical, hematological, and enzymatic disruptions. Viability indices, lactation, and offspring growth were significantly reduced, along with noticeable morphological delays. Finally, sensorimotor functions of offspring exposed to venom in utero were severely impaired, affecting their social behavior, sensory maturation, and motor coordination.</div><div>Based on the findings of this study, <em>Androctonus mauritanicus</em> venom administration during pregnancy at a moderate dose can lead to significant effects on physical development and reflex maturation during the postnatal period.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"258 ","pages":"Article 108328"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143673657","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Acute kidney injury, coagulopathy, and deep vein thrombosis following a haemotoxic snakebite: A case report from a resource-limited setting","authors":"Md. Asaduzzaman ,&nbsp;Sazeda Akter ,&nbsp;Jafrin Sultana ,&nbsp;Nayem Hasan ,&nbsp;Zarin Tasrin Haque Tasin ,&nbsp;Sadia Satara Zaman ,&nbsp;Soumitra Roy ,&nbsp;M.M. Jahangir Alam ,&nbsp;Fazle Rabbi Chowdhury","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108324","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108324","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>The green pit viper (<em>Trimeresurus gramineus</em>) is a venomous snake commonly encountered in South Asia, particularly in Bangladesh, and responsible for many snakebite incidents. Management of its envenoming is challenging due to the lack of a specific antivenom, requiring symptomatic and supportive care to address complications. The following case report represents the complexities in managing such envenomation with associated renal and venous thrombotic complications.</div></div><div><h3>Case presentation</h3><div>A 35-year-old female was admitted with left lower-limb swelling and ecchymosis following a snakebite. She was transferred from a primary-level hospital with acute kidney injury (serum creatinine 4.0 mg/dL) and venom-induced consumption coagulopathy (VICC) (high levels of d-dimer (15 mg/L), prothrombin time (28 seconds) and activated partial thromboplastin time (&gt;120 sec). Duplex ultrasound confirmed presence of femoral vein thrombosis. The patient was treated with fresh frozen plasma along with other supportive measures. His renal function improved, with creatinine levels normalizing in days.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>The management of green pit viper envenomation requires close monitoring of coagulation parameters and renal function, along with supportive care. The occurrence of unusual complications, such as deep vein thrombosis, necessitates a conservative and individualized approach to treatment. Further research is needed to better understand the pathophysiology and improve the therapeutic strategies for managing the sequelae of such envenomations.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"258 ","pages":"Article 108324"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143674640","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Revealing the key organelle in the pathophysiology and clinical applications of animal toxins: Mitochondria","authors":"Linfeng Wang ,&nbsp;Jiahao Liu ,&nbsp;Sheng Zhou ,&nbsp;Jiaqi Sun ,&nbsp;Meiling Liu ,&nbsp;Jianqi Zhao ,&nbsp;Lixia Cheng ,&nbsp;Zejing Wen ,&nbsp;Xiaowen Bi ,&nbsp;Chunhong Huang","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108323","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108323","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Animal toxins present an enormous threat to global health, necessitating urgent attention to their management and research. Mitochondria have been identified as a key focus in understanding the pathophysiology and clinical applications of animal toxins. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the relationship between mitochondria and animal toxins from multiple dimensions, aiming to promote the toxicological research on animal toxins, investigate and evaluate their potential clinical applications, and identify novel drug targets for the development of new antitoxin drugs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"258 ","pages":"Article 108323"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143671016","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Climate change increases public health risks from Tityus scorpion stings in Brazil","authors":"Renata de Freitas Barroso ,&nbsp;Vitória Luiza Cardoso ,&nbsp;Ana Gabriela Alves ,&nbsp;André Felipe de Araújo Lira ,&nbsp;Rhainer Guillermo Ferreira ,&nbsp;Lourenço Faria Costa ,&nbsp;Everton Tizo-Pedroso","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108326","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108326","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Urban environments provide <em>Tityus</em> scorpions with abundant prey and shelter, leading to increased human-scorpion encounters and associated public health risks. In this study, we model the distribution of seven medically relevant <em>Tityus</em> species and project the potential impacts of climate change on their distribution across Brazil by 2060. We compiled 1103 occurrence records from the GBIF, iNaturalist, SpeciesLink, and SiBBr databases and applied ecological niche modeling using climate projections for 2041–2060 from WorldClim. Model validation yielded high AUC values, demonstrating a strong agreement between observed distributions and model predictions. Future climate scenarios predict a reduction in <em>Tityus serrulatus</em> habitat suitability. Despite this reduction, models indicate an increase in high-suitability areas, suggesting a possible local expansion in optimal habitats. Conversely, <em>T</em>. <em>metuendus</em>, <em>T. obscurus</em>, and <em>T. silvestris</em> are expected to undergo a significant increase in habitat suitability, potentially expanding into previously unsuitable areas due to temperature and precipitation shifts. <em>Tityus stigmurus</em> is also projected to benefit from climate change with an increase in suitable habitats, although its expansion is more restricted compared to the other species. In contrast, <em>T. bahiensis</em> and <em>T. trivittatus</em> are expected to face a reduction in habitat suitability. These findings highlight that climate-driven habitat reduction may concentrate scorpion populations in densely populated areas, exacerbating public health risks. Therefore, targeted governmental interventions are crucial to mitigate the escalating threat posed by <em>Tityus</em> scorpions in urban settings under climate change scenarios.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"258 ","pages":"Article 108326"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143671014","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Use of commercial tannic acid against the toxic effects of Bothrops jararacussu venom","authors":"Luis Carlos Simas Pereira Júnior ,&nbsp;Eduardo Coriolano de Oliveira ,&nbsp;Eladio Flores Sanchez ,&nbsp;André Lopes Fuly","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108325","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108325","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Snakebite envenomation is a neglected public health issue affecting thousands of victims worldwide. In Brazil, the genus <em>Bothrops</em> is responsible for 88 % of snakebites; bites from the species <em>B. jararacussu</em> present at a high frequency and are associated with high lethality and morbidity rates. <em>B. jararacussu</em> injects a large volume of venom, leading to massive tissue necrosis, hemorrhage, and eventually death. Antivenom is the only available treatment for neutralizing such toxic effects; it effectively prevents death but not the physical sequelae caused by muscle damage. Antivenom has other drawbacks, such as fever and anaphylactic reactions, high production costs, and the need for controlled storage temperatures. Thus, complementary treatments are sought to overcome these disadvantages of antivenoms. Here, we assessed the effects of commercial tannic acid on the major toxic activities of <em>B. jararacussu</em> venom, such as its proteolytic, plasma coagulation, edematogenic, hemorrhagic, and lethal effects. Overall, the incubation of tannic acid with <em>B. jararacussu</em> venom inhibited the venom's <em>in vitro</em> coagulant and proteolytic effects and <em>in vivo</em> hemorrhagic and edematogenic activities; however, it failed to prevent against lethality. Antibothropic serum protected mice from <em>B. jararacussu</em> venom–induced death and inhibited edema by approximately 45 % but did not protect against hemorrhage. In conclusion, tannic acid efficiently neutralized the main toxic activities of <em>B. jararacussu</em> venom, which causes severe envenomation in some South American countries. Thus, tannic acid is a candidate for managing <em>Bothrops</em> snakebites and, alongside antivenom, may hasten and improve victim recovery.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"258 ","pages":"Article 108325"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143664249","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Successful management of severe coagulopathy in a dog following Cerastes gasperettii (Arabian horned Viper) envenomation: First clinical case description in Israel","authors":"Green Iris ,&nbsp;Kelmer Efrat ,&nbsp;Mazon Yael ,&nbsp;Aroch Itamar ,&nbsp;Klainbart Sigal","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108321","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108321","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This report describes the first documented clinical case of a confirmed, naturally occurring <em>Cerastes gasperettii</em> (<em>C. gasperettii</em>; Arabian horned viper) envenomation, providing valuable insight into the limited literature on this important species. The case describes a five-year-old pointer dog from the Arave Valley, Israel. Clinical signs included progressive soft tissue swelling and lethargy. Laboratory findings revealed severe coagulopathy, mild renal impairment, and evidence of microangiopathic hemolysis. Despite the unavailability of species-specific antivenom, treatment management with canine fresh frozen plasma, crystalloid therapy, and supportive care, resulted in full recovery within 36 hours. This case contributes significantly to understanding the clinical manifestations, therapeutic strategies, and potential pathophysiological mechanisms of <em>C. gasperettii</em> envenomation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"258 ","pages":"Article 108321"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-03-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143617360","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}