Toxicon最新文献

{"title":"Botulinum toxin as an effective rescue treatment after failure of anti-CGRP monoclonal antibodies in chronic migraine patients","authors":"Giovanni Ermanis ,&nbsp;Yan Tereshko ,&nbsp;Enrico Belgrado ,&nbsp;Christian Lettieri ,&nbsp;Gian Luigi Gigli ,&nbsp;Mariarosaria Valente","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108605","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108605","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>anti-CGRP monoclonal antibodies (anti-CGRP mAbs) represent a highly effective prophylactic treatment for chronic migraineurs, but for some subjects they are ineffective. We aimed to determine if OnabotulinumtoxinA (BoNT/A) treatment may be helpful in these cases. We collected data from fourteen chronic migraineurs who attended our Headache Center and who did not benefit from anti-CGRP mAbs treatment. After anti-CGRP mAbs failure, these patients underwent at least one BoNT/A treatment according to the PREEMPT protocol. We then compared the variation in headache days (DOH), pain intensity (NRS), and symptomatic medication intake (ADI) before and after anti-CGRP mAbs therapy and before and after BoNT/A treatment: we confirmed that the interruption of anti-CGRP mAbs treatment had actually been due to a lack of benefit in terms of DOH (19.21 ± 7.58 days and 20.29 ± 8.32 days; p = 0.74), NRS (7.64 ± 0.75 vs 7.57 ± 1.01; p = 0.85) and ADI (42.86 ± 52.74 vs 45.64 ± 52.82; p = 0.79). All patients started BoNT/A therapy after discontinuing anti-CGRP mAbs. After a period without treatment, therapy with BoNT/A caused a significant reduction in DOH (23.86 ± 6.97 vs. 11.36 ± 10.10, p = 0.010), ADI (47.07 ± 51.19 vs. 20.50 ± 21.42, p = 0.010) and NRS (8.07 ± 1.00 vs. 6.64 ± 1.60, p = 0.014), improving clinical conditions in patients non-responders to anti-CGRP mAbs. It is not well established on which basis pharmacological resistance to anti-CGRP mAbs develops in such refractory patients. Still, these data may point towards a mechanism of pain relief that could not be solely related to CGRP pathways activity, thus being a good rescue therapy in resistant headache management, although further data are needed. Our preliminary results suggest that BoNT/A may be a promising salvage therapy option when anti-CGRP mAbs are ineffective, but evidence requires confirmation from basic research and in larger, uncontrolled, prospective studies in chronic migraineurs.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"268 ","pages":"Article 108605"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145223543","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Morbity and mortality in Texel sheep following feed-based monensin overdose in Brazil","authors":"Maria Augusta Fornara ,&nbsp;Lucas Marian ,&nbsp;Gustavo William Pandolfo ,&nbsp;Jéssica Aline Withoeft ,&nbsp;Laura Gabrieli Espindola ,&nbsp;Cláudia Salete Wisser ,&nbsp;Joandes Henrique Ribeiro ,&nbsp;Renata Assis Casagrande","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108607","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108607","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Monensin is an antibiotic ionophore used as feed additive in production animals, however, overdose with monensin is associated with poisoning in livestock. This study describes a mortality outbreak in sheep associated with ingestion of a feed supplement containing elevated concentrations of monensin. The objectives were characterize pathological lesions from monensin toxicosis, correlate these findings with serum creatine kinase myocardial band (CKMB) to estimate the extent of myocardial injury, as well as with electrocardiogram to evaluate the progression and severity of cardiac damage. A farm with 49 Texel sheep provided 275 Kg of supplement containing 1.102 mg/kg of monensin undiluted, freely available in the trough for seven days (40 Kg/day). From the 5th day onward animals presented sternal recumbency, submandibular edema, dyspnea and tachycardia followed by death in 15 animals. At necropsy, the main lesions were globular heart with eccentric dilatation of cardiac chambers, pale myocardium, lungs with edema and congestion, hydrothorax, hydropericardium, ascites, liver with enhanced lobular pattern and pale skeletal musculature. Histologically, in six sheep that died within the first days necrotic myocarditis multifocal to coalescing, mild to moderate with discrete degree of fibrosis, and in nine sheep that died later fibrosis became pronounced. Mapping of cardiac lesions revealed predominance of lesions in left and right ventricles, atria, and interventricular septum, with degree varying between 2 and 3. In apex, right and left papillary muscles lesions ranged from grades 0–2. There was evidence of discrete multifocal necrotic myositis, pulmonary edema and congestion, necrotic hepatitis and centrilobular congestion. In the animals which the CKMB enzyme was measured, the mean value was 1008.88 u/L (104-2480 u/L). Electrocardiogram in four animals showed sinus tachycardia, atrial fibrillation and decreased wave P amplitude. Monensin poisoning caused predominant damage to heart with right and left congestive heart failure, which continued to be present in the surviving animals.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"268 ","pages":"Article 108607"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145223545","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Chemical fingerprinting of Peganum harmala seeds via UV–Vis, XRD, TGA, FTIR, and GC-MS techniques; In vitro assessment of cytotoxic properties","authors":"Sreya Sunil ,&nbsp;Amruth P","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108606","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108606","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Peganum harmala</em> L., a perennial herb traditionally valued for medicinal and ritual uses, was comprehensively profiled to elucidate its chemical composition and cytotoxic potential. Methanolic seed extracts contained diverse primary and secondary metabolites, including alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, glycosides, steroids, proteins, and carbohydrates. Proximate analysis revealed high moisture (45.88 %) and crude fibre (18.39 %) with moderate fat (14.74 %) and protein (7.67 %) levels. Spectroscopic studies supported the presence of β-carboline alkaloids: FTIR spectra showed characteristic functional group vibrations, UV–Vis displayed a strong absorption at 440 nm, and X-ray diffraction revealed semi-crystalline patterns enriched in harmine and harmaline. GC–MS provided definitive chemical identification, detecting harmine (53.13 %) and harmaline (39.12 %) as major constituents. Thermal analyses (TGA–DTA and DTG) indicated multiphase decomposition typical of complex organic matrices. Cytotoxicity assessment using the MTT assay on L929 fibroblast cells demonstrated a dose-dependent decline in cell viability, with an LC₅₀ of 243.9 μg/mL, signifying moderate–high cytotoxic potential. These findings validate the ethnomedicinal significance of <em>P. harmala</em> and underscore its promise for phytomedicine, nutraceutical applications, and pharmaceutical research, while highlighting the necessity of standardized and regulated use to ensure efficacy and safety.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"268 ","pages":"Article 108606"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145213874","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Differentially altered phytochemical composition contributes to the pharmaco-toxicological conundrum of oleander","authors":"Nisha Tewari,&nbsp;Priyankar Dey","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108604","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108604","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Nerium oleander</em> L. is utilized in Ayurveda and Chinese traditional medicine to address diabetes and metabolic liver disease. However, oleander represents a bizarre paradox in evidence-based medicine since, despite several pre-clinical and clinical toxicological reports, oleander is extensively utilized in traditional medicine. We hypothesized that the dual pharmaco-toxicological activity of oleander is due to the variations in the phytochemical profile. This variance is likely due to the oleander variety (white or red) or the solvent extraction process. To test this hypothesis, leaves of both varieties of oleander were collected from multiple geographical locations to eliminate chances of phytochemical variation due to environmental and abiotic factors. Phytochemical profiling of polar and non-polar extracts of oleander was performed using GC-MS and LC-MS. Oleandrin content was measured using HPLC. Untargeted metabolomics data were subjected to metabolite class and metabolic pathway enrichment analysis. Comparative cytotoxicity was evaluated using Caco-2 and PBMC cells. Results showed that the phytochemical compositions are strongly influenced by the plant variety and solvent extraction technique. Red oleander and methanolic extracts demonstrated an elevated concentration of toxic oleandrin and cerebrin. While white oleander exhibited low levels of oleandrin, it contained higher levels of tocopherol and phytol. Methanol extracts exhibited enhanced cytotoxicity on Caco-2 cells and PBMCs, which correlated with oleandrin concentrations. Diverse metabolic pathways, such as phenylpropanoid production, differed among extracts. In conclusion, the polar extracts of red oleander present a significant risk of toxicity due to high oleandrin levels, and safer alternatives include non-polar extracts from white oleander.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"268 ","pages":"Article 108604"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145213877","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Scorpion venom as a natural peptide source for innovative therapeutic solutions: A comprehensive review of its potential in emerging medical frontiers","authors":"Radwa Abdallnasser Amen ,&nbsp;Rawan Atef Essmat ,&nbsp;Alyaa Farid ,&nbsp;Mohamed A. Abdel-Rahman ,&nbsp;Ahmed A. El-Sherif ,&nbsp;Yonghong Zhang","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108603","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108603","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Scorpion venom is a complex mixture and an abundant natural source of bioactive components, including peptides and other molecules that exhibit a wide range of therapeutic effects despite its notable neurotoxic effects. This review focuses on these bioactive components and their therapeutic potential. Among the most potent molecules in scorpion venom are peptides with high specificity and affinity for ion channels, making them excellent candidates in drug development. The most critical therapeutic application is scorpion venom as an anticancer agent. Several venom peptides have selectivity toward cancer cells by inducing disruption in tumor growth and metastasis. Moreover, scorpion venom can modulate the immune system and thus can provide treatments for autoimmune diseases through its action on ion channels in lymphocytes. Neurological effects, especially in neurological disorders caused by venom peptides, come through an action against sodium and potassium channels. In pain management, scorpion toxins act upon the sodium channels in sensory neurons and provide analgesic effects. Additionally, much attention has been paid to antimicrobial properties of scorpion venom. Peptides isolated from venom have demonstrated strong, broad-spectrum inhibitory activities against bacteria, fungi, and viruses, which have opened a new avenue to develop antimicrobial therapies. Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects extend the therapeutic possibilities of scorpion venom further. Venom peptides may reduce inflammation and oxidative stress and relieve diseases associated with inflammation and oxidative stress. This study aims to provide a comprehensive review of the therapeutic effects of scorpion venom, emphasizing its potential in drug development for a wide range of diseases.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"268 ","pages":"Article 108603"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145189876","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Botulism in pregnancy: A clinical review","authors":"Jayan Jayapalan Nair ,&nbsp;Divya Mecheril Balachandran","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108601","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108601","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Botulism is a rare but potentially life-threatening neuroparalytic condition caused by <em>Clostridium botulinum</em> toxin, which has significant maternal and fetal health consequences during pregnancy, necessitating a careful review of existing literature. We conducted a comprehensive literature review, searching databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and Embase for studies published through June 2025. This search was supplemented by hand-searching and the translation of foreign articles. We included studies describing clinical cases of botulism in pregnant patients or reporting on botulinum antitoxin safety. After applying strict criteria, we identified 20 cases from 17 distinct articles. Our analysis shows that although botulinum antitoxin remains the only available antidote for botulism, information on its safety, efficacy, and impact on both mother and fetus during pregnancy is limited. Review findings suggest that early administration of antitoxin is associated with positive maternal outcomes, and there is no evidence that the toxin or antitoxin crosses the placental barrier. However, data on fetal and neonatal effects remain sparse. Current evidence supports prompt antitoxin treatment for pregnant individuals with botulism, but further research is needed to understand the full implications, optimize management, and clarify remaining uncertainties regarding maternal and fetal safety.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"267 ","pages":"Article 108601"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145158403","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Letter to the Editor: Concerns Regarding the Accuracy of the Methodology and Interpretation in Hamman et al., Toxicon 266 (2025) 108510.","authors":"Eugene Erulu, Mitchel Okumu","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108594","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108594","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":" ","pages":"108594"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145182092","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The influence of ontogeny on Bothrops erythromelas snake venom: Compositional and functional changes and the first report of L-amino acid oxidase in this species","authors":"Daniela Miki Hatakeyama ,&nbsp;Lídia Jorge Tasima ,&nbsp;Eduardo Oliveira Venancio de Lima ,&nbsp;Giovanni Perez Machado da Silveira ,&nbsp;Caroline Serino-Silva ,&nbsp;Antonio Fernando Montemor ,&nbsp;Jordi Tena Garcés ,&nbsp;Kathleen Fernandes Grego ,&nbsp;Patrícia Léo ,&nbsp;Anita Mitico Tanaka-Azevedo","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108598","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108598","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Snakebites are classified as a neglected tropical disease due to its global impact. The genus <em>Bothrops</em> is the main responsible for envenoming in Brazil, with symptoms that are both local and systemic. Snake venoms are subject to intraspecific variation related to several internal and external factors, including ontogeny. <em>Bothrops erythromelas</em> are small snakes with generalist feeding habits and the ontogenetic variation in its venom has not yet been fully elucidated. Thus, the present work aimed to biologically and biochemically characterize the venom of <em>B. erythromelas</em> snakes from neonates to adults. Compositional analysis of neonates' venom showed a protein profile predominated by high molecular mass bands, which decreased as the animals matured. Contrarily, the regions comprising intermediate and low mass proteins increased in higher ages. In the chromatograms of the venoms, we highlight a shift of peaks in the region predominantly composed of metalloproteases, which may be related to coagulant and collagenolytic activities. Interestingly, L-amino acid oxidase (LAAO) activity was detected in the venom of male adults, so the venom of the one individual that presented the highest activity was submitted to mass spectrometry analysis, confirming its presence in the venom of this species for the first time. Concerning the activities, collagenolytic, LAAO, hemorrhagic, and lethal activities were higher in older animals, while phospholipase A₂, caseinolytic, cytotoxic, and coagulant activities were higher in neonates and juveniles. The immunorecognition assay showed that the venoms of adults were more reactive than those of younger snakes. Nonetheless, proteolytic and coagulant activities <em>in vitro</em> were partially inhibited, whilst hemorrhagic activity were almost completely neutralized. These results altogether, along with literature, highlight the importance of studying intraspecific variation of snake venoms in order to deepen our understanding of the biology of these animals and as means to improve antivenom treatment.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"268 ","pages":"Article 108598"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145182099","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental assessment of beauvericin toxicity in tadpoles of Dendropsophus minutus (Anura: Hylidae)","authors":"Monica Chacon de Vicente ,&nbsp;Luiza Gabriella Ferreira de Paula ,&nbsp;Renata Maria Pereira de Freitas ,&nbsp;Adieli dos Anjos Almeida ,&nbsp;Diego da Silva Lima ,&nbsp;Rebeca dos Santos Gabriel ,&nbsp;Nathany Geraldino Nogueira ,&nbsp;Nádya Raquel dos Santos Batista ,&nbsp;Alexandre Có Mangoni Barros ,&nbsp;Marcelino Benvindo de Souza ,&nbsp;Rogério Pereira Bastos ,&nbsp;Pedro Vale de Azevedo Brito ,&nbsp;Daniela de Melo e Silva ,&nbsp;Ana Flávia Machado Botelho","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108600","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108600","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Beauvericin (BEA) is an emerging mycotoxin frequently detected in food and feed, raising concerns about its toxicological risks for One Health. This study evaluated the acute toxicity of BEA in tadpoles of <em>Dendropsophus minutus</em>, a bioindicator species of environmental toxicity, after a 96-h exposure. Tadpoles were exposed to three concentrations of BEA, with vehicle (DMSO), positive (cyclophosphamide), and negative (water) controls. Outcomes included survival, genotoxicity (comet assay), mutagenicity (micronucleus test), leukocyte profiles, redox status markers, and liver histopathology. Exposure to BEA did not induce genotoxicity; however, it resulted in mutagenic effects, with an increase in reniform nuclei and a decrease in anucleated erythrocytes, and hepatotoxicity characterized by sinusoidal congestion, reduced hepatocyte cytoplasmic volume, and increased connective tissue. Elevated levels of nitric oxide and carbonyl proteins were observed, indicating oxidative stress, while antioxidant enzymes and acetylcholinesterase activity remained unchanged. These findings demonstrate that BEA induces mutagenic, cytotoxic, and hepatotoxic effects in amphibians, highlighting its potential ecological impact and relevance for One Health risk assessment.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"267 ","pages":"Article 108600"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145159023","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Acute toxicity of frog-skin-homologous synthetic alkaloids and frog-skin extracts: miniaturized test to evaluate toxicity with Daphnia magna.","authors":"Michael Méndez-Rivera, Didier Ramírez-Morales, Abel Mora-Machado, Heike Pröhl, Ariel Rodríguez, Takuya Okada, Naoki Toyooka, Roberto Ibáñez, Carlos E Rodríguez-Rodríguez, Giselle Tamayo-Castillo","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108599","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108599","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The determination of toxicity in samples from natural extracts or products of organic synthesis represents a challenge due to the low available volume of these kinds of matrices. A miniaturized immobilization acute test in Daphnia magna was implemented at microplate-scale to determine the relative toxicity in 13 synthetic alkaloids, analogous to those found in the skin of frogs, and skin-extracts from 18 individuals of the frog Oophaga vicentei. The test revealed moderate or moderate to low toxicity towards the daphnids for all tested synthetic alkaloids after a 48-h exposure. The correlation of relative toxicity and several parameters in frog samples revealed that: (i) toxicity is not associated with frog coloration (aposematism) or their geographical location; and (ii) toxicity is dependent on the profile of alkaloid composition rather than the total alkaloid content. Results from this work provide an alternative method to assay toxicity in limited-volume samples, useful to elucidate potential aposematic-related differences in dendrobatid frogs.</p>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":" ","pages":"108599"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145178859","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}