Toxicon最新文献

{"title":"Geographic variation in ichthyocrinotoxin from the Estuarine Stonefish (Synanceia horrida)","authors":"Danica Lennox-Bulow,&nbsp;Robert Courtney,&nbsp;Jamie Seymour","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108383","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108383","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Geographic variation in the composition of animal toxins is well documented for venomous taxa, and to a lesser degree, for some poisonous taxa that secrete toxins obtained from their diet. However, very little is known about animals that synthesise their poisons <em>de novo</em>, such as stonefish and their secreted ichthyocrinotoxins. Stonefish are widely distributed throughout the Indo-Pacific, however, the effect of location on the composition of their ichthyocrinotoxin is currently unknown. This study aimed to determine whether the composition of ichthyocrinotoxins from <em>Synanceia horrida</em> (Estuarine Stonefish) varied between three geographically isolated Australian populations including Cairns in far north Queensland, Caloundra in southeast Queensland, and Exmouth in Western Australia. The composition of ichthyocrinotoxins from <em>S. horrida</em> were largely conserved across the three locations, with the size of most of the components falling between 14 and 25 kDa. However, unique components were identified in <em>S. horrida</em> ichthyocrinotoxins from Caloundra and Exmouth populations. Caloundra populations contained unique smaller components (8 and 12 kDa) that were hydrophobic. In contrast, Exmouth populations contained unique larger components (60 and 150 kDa) with no difference in hydrophobicity. We speculate that the composition of ichthyocrinotoxins produced by <em>S. horrida</em> are likely influenced by benthic flora and fauna communities, particularly those that are likely to interact with the animal's skin, such as fouling flora and fauna, as well as parasites. These findings further add to the growing body of evidence underscoring the complexity and compositional diversity of ichthyocrinotoxins produced by stonefish.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"262 ","pages":"Article 108383"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143935536","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Reducing time in lethality assay (LD50) for Bothrops jararaca and Crotalus durissus terrificus venoms and lethality neutralizing assay (ED50) for their respective antivenoms: A 3Rs-based retrospective data validation","authors":"Antonio Alves Pereira-Júnior,&nbsp;Fábio Henrique Dias Martins Lima,&nbsp;Isadora Florentino Martins,&nbsp;Renan de Souza Fructuoso da Silva,&nbsp;Elizabeth Porto Reis Lucas","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108358","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108358","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Mouse lethality assays (MLA) remain the gold standard for evaluating antivenom potency despite ethical concerns regarding animal welfare. This study assessed whether reducing observation periods from 48 to 24 h in MLA for determining median lethal dose (LD₅₀) and median effective dose (ED₅₀) of <em>Bothrops jararaca</em> and <em>Crotalus durissus terrificus</em> venoms and antivenoms maintains scientific validity while improving animal welfare. Through retrospective analysis of 518 quality control assays conducted between 2009–2023 at INCQS, including 334 potency assays and 27 median lethal dose assays for <em>B. jararaca</em>, and 134 ED₅₀ assays and 23 LD₅₀ assays for <em>C. d. terrificus</em>, we found that over 98% of deaths occurred within the first 24 h post-injection for all LD₅₀ determinations on venoms and all ED₅₀ determinations on antivenoms for both species. Statistical analyses demonstrated exceptional agreement between 24-hour and 48-hour endpoints, with concordance correlation coefficients exceeding 0.96 for all assays. Bland–Altman analysis revealed narrow limits of agreement with minimal systematic bias, particularly for antivenom potency measurements. Classification performance metrics showed excellent accuracy (98.5%–100%) in identifying satisfactory antivenoms at 24 h compared to the standard 48-hour protocol, with weighted kappa coefficients exceeding 0.98, indicating near-perfect agreement. For <em>C. d. terrificus</em> antivenom, the 24-hour assay demonstrated 100% concordance with the 48-hour classification, while <em>B. jararaca</em> antivenom showed 98.5% accuracy with only 6 discordant results among 334 assays. Kaplan–Meier survival analysis confirmed statistically equivalent survival probabilities between both time points. These findings provide robust evidence supporting the adoption of a 24-hour observation period as an ethically superior refinement that maintains scientific integrity while significantly reducing animal distress. This refinement aligns with the 3Rs principles and could enhance testing efficiency in antivenom quality control, establishing a precedent for similar refinements in other biological assays and supporting the revision of regulatory guidelines to incorporate more humane testing protocols.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"262 ","pages":"Article 108358"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143936492","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Block of Kv1 potassium channels and NMR structure of recombinant conotoxin κ-SrXIA","authors":"Laura I. Escobar ,&nbsp;Carlos Daniel Quezada Suaste ,&nbsp;Carolina Salvador ,&nbsp;Daniel León Aparicio ,&nbsp;Carolina Monserrath Melchor-Meneses ,&nbsp;Jorge Bravo-Martínez ,&nbsp;Víctor de la Rosa ,&nbsp;Zinaeli López-González ,&nbsp;Federico del Río-Portilla","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108384","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108384","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The biologically active components of <em>Conus</em> venoms are mainly small peptides with disulfide-bonded structures. Some conotoxins contain post-translational modifications as an evolutionary strategy to enhance their potency and selectivity towards ion channels and receptors. Few conotoxins are known to target mammalian Kv1 channels. κ-SrXIA from the venom of <em>Conus spurius</em> inhibits the voltage-gated potassium Kv1.2 and Kv1.6 channels through a basic ring of Arg. The 32 amino acid κ-SrXIA has eight Cys residues arranged in the pattern that defines the I-superfamily with four disulfide bridges, two gamma-carboxy-glutamates (Gla), and a Pro-amidated C-terminus (X). In this study, we obtained and determined the biological activity and NMR structure of recombinant κ-SrXIA without Gla and X. The conotoxin cDNA was expressed in <em>E. coli</em> CD41 and purified by GST-affinity chromatography and RP-HPLC. Pharmacological assays were performed by two-electrode voltage-clamp recordings in <em>Xenopus laevis</em> oocytes expressing recombinant Kv1.1, Kv1.2, Kv1.3, Kv1.4 and Kv1.6 channels. Except for Kv1.3, κ-Sr-XIA irreversibly blocked Kv1 channels displaying a lower affinity and a slower inhibition kinetics than native conotoxin. Even when κ-SrXIA displayed a high structural similarity to GXIA from the I₃-superfamily, the resultant disulfide connectivity forming an ICK+1 motif showed two antiparallel β-strands as ι-RXIA from the I₁-superfamily. This study represents the first 3D NMR structure for a member of the I₂-superfamily.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"262 ","pages":"Article 108384"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143917986","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"LCA, a bacterial metabolite, induces ferroptosis and senescence in triple-negative breast cancer","authors":"Xiayun Jin ,&nbsp;Xiangyu Jin ,&nbsp;Xia Zhang ,&nbsp;Shishi Zhou ,&nbsp;Hua Chai","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108373","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108373","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Lithocholic Acid (LCA) is a secondary bile acid generated through the microbial metabolism of primary bile acids in the gut. In recent years, it has been found to have potential anti-tumor effects. Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is the most aggressive breast cancer subtype, characterized by the absence of estrogen receptor, progesterone receptor, and HER2 expression. Chemotherapy remains the primary treatment, but it has significant side effects and often leads to drug resistance. Therefore, exploring new treatment strategies is of great importance. This research seeks to elucidate the mechanism of LCA in TNBC and establish a theoretical foundation for its clinical use. Through cell proliferation assays, iron metabolism detection, oxidative stress analysis, ferroptosis marker detection, and autophagy-related experiments, we systematically investigated the effects of LCA on TNBC cells. The findings indicated that LCA effectively suppressed TNBC cell proliferation and triggered mitochondrial iron overload and oxidative stress, resulting in ferroptosis via ferritinophagy. Molecular mechanism studies revealed that after LCA treatment, the expression of ferroptosis-related markers GPX4 and FTH was downregulated, while NCOA4 expression was upregulated. Autophagy inhibitors or AMPK inhibitors significantly reversed LCA-induced ferroptosis, indicating that LCA induces ferroptosis by promoting ferritinophagy and releasing iron ions. This study elucidates the molecular mechanism by which LCA induces ferroptosis in TNBC cells via regulation of iron metabolism, oxidative stress, and autophagy. It provides crucial experimental evidence and theoretical support for LCA as a potential anti-breast cancer drug, offering novel insights and targets for TNBC treatment.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"262 ","pages":"Article 108373"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143999259","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Muscle physiology in spasticity and muscle stiffness","authors":"Preeti Raghavan","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108350","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108350","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This paper examines the physiological changes in spastic muscles contributing to spasticity and muscle stiffness, focusing on the underlying mechanisms and their clinical implications. Spasticity, which is prevalent in neurological conditions such as multiple sclerosis, cerebral palsy, spinal cord injury, stroke, and traumatic brain injury, is characterized by disordered sensorimotor control and often results in increased muscle stiffness and resistance to movement. Recent developments in the understanding of spasticity suggest the importance of architectural changes in muscles that may contribute to increased passive resistance, potentiate reflex mechanisms, and progression to fibrosis, with hyaluronan (HA), a glycosaminoglycan, playing a pivotal in modulating the properties of the muscle extracellular matrix (ECM). The hyaluronan hypothesis of muscle stiffness postulates that the accumulation and biophysical alteration of HA in the ECM of muscle increases its viscosity, resulting in increased passive mechanical resistance. This is turn mayincrease muscle sensitivity to stretch, potentiating spasticity, and lead to cellular differentiation of myofibroblasts to fibroblasts ultimately leading to fibrosis and contracture. A deeper understanding of HA's role in ECM dynamics offers promising avenues for novel treatments aimed at mitigating stiffness and preventing long-term disability in patients with spasticity.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"259 ","pages":"Article 108350"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143891394","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Disparity among venom components, and morphometrics in Centruroides baergi Hoffmann, 1932, a medically relevant scorpion species from Mexico","authors":"Fernando O. Bejarano-Mendoza ,&nbsp;Ilse Viridiana Gómez-Ramírez ,&nbsp;Antonio Juan Cortés Guzmán ,&nbsp;Baltazar Becerril ,&nbsp;Lourival D. Possani ,&nbsp;Jimena I. Cid-Uribe ,&nbsp;Edmundo González-Santillán","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108370","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108370","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Centruroides baergi</em> is a scorpion species distributed in the biogeographical province of the Balsas Basin in Mexico. Health officials have reported acute envenomation in human populations living on the western side of this scorpion's range, but none in the eastern region. This disparity in toxicity suggested that there may be two distinct species. We used two different approaches, including venom analysis and morphometric specimens from both regions, to test our hypothesis. We performed chromatographic, electrophoretic, and mass spectrometry analysis to identify the known β-toxins involved in the intoxication. The most remarkable finding was the absence of Cb3 β-toxin in the eastern population. Consequently, the LD₅₀ of the eastern population was lower than that of the western population. We analyzed linear and ratio body measurements with parametric and nonparametric statistics to test species limits. These analyses indicated that all putative populations of <em>C. baergi</em> are significantly similar, suggesting that they may represent a single species. Unexpectedly, the population of scorpions in the center of the study area, Suchixtlahuaca, previously identified as <em>C. baergi</em>, showed significant morphological and venom composition differences. We provided empirical evidence of an abrupt change of highly toxic peptides around the 98th meridian that limits populations of <em>Centruroides baergi</em> to the east of Mexico.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"259 ","pages":"Article 108370"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143942353","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Regional differences in intra-body distribution of saxitoxins in freshwater pufferfish Pao sp. A from Cambodia","authors":"Hongchen Zhu ,&nbsp;Junji Takeoka ,&nbsp;In Sokra ,&nbsp;Linan Horn ,&nbsp;Laymithuna Ngy ,&nbsp;Kei'ichiro Iguchi ,&nbsp;Yuzuru Utsunomiya ,&nbsp;Minoru Wada ,&nbsp;Akinori Yamada ,&nbsp;Naoki Yagishita ,&nbsp;Tomohiro Takatani ,&nbsp;Osamu Arakawa","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108363","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108363","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Mekong River in Cambodia is inhabited by approximately ten species of freshwater pufferfish of the family Tetraodontidae. However, limited information is available regarding the toxin profile of these fish. In this study, to obtain sufficient information on the intra-body distribution of toxins in Cambodian freshwater pufferfish, one species of <em>Pao</em> freshwater pufferfish (<em>Pao</em> sp. A) were collected from Phnom Penh (PNH) in November 2019 (n = 23) and from Kratie (KTI) in March 2023 (n = 21). Toxin analyses of these samples revealed that individuals from both regions possessed saxitoxins (STXs) and contained no tetrodotoxin. <em>Pao</em> sp. A specimens from PNH possessed high STXs levels in the skin, muscle, liver, and gonads, whereas those from KTI showed relatively low levels of STXs concentrated in the skin. STXs amount in the ovaries in PNH individuals increased exponentially with increasing the gonadosomatic index (GSI). We also clarified that STXs concentration in the skin became increasingly higher as KTI individuals grew. These results suggest that differences in living regions may affect the intra-body distribution of STXs in <em>Pao</em> freshwater pufferfish, with maturation and/or growth contributing as well.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"259 ","pages":"Article 108363"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143891393","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Unique physiological and regulatory activity drives divergent toxin and non-toxin gene expression in rattlesnake accessory venom glands","authors":"Claire Kim ,&nbsp;Sierra N. Smith ,&nbsp;Siddharth S. Gopalan ,&nbsp;Samuel R. Kerwin ,&nbsp;Kaas Ballard ,&nbsp;Blair W. Perry ,&nbsp;Cara F. Smith ,&nbsp;Anthony J. Saviola ,&nbsp;Richard H. Adams ,&nbsp;Stephen P. Mackessy ,&nbsp;Todd A. Castoe","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108376","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108376","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Understanding the mechanisms by which organs and tissues evolve new physiological functions is central to understanding the evolution of novelty. This is particularly interesting in the context of related tissues that evolve specialized, yet complementary, functions. Snake venom glands are an attractive system to test hypotheses related to the evolution and specialization of novel physiological function, as these modified salivary glands have evolved over ∼60 MY to synthesize and store venom. Front-fanged venomous snakes (elapids and viperids) possess two types of venom glands: the main and accessory glands. The larger main gland produces greater quantities of venom toxins and has been studied extensively, while the smaller accessory gland has received less attention. Here, we explore gene expression differences between main and accessory venom glands across three rattlesnake species (<em>Crotalus cerberus</em>, <em>C. oreganus concolor</em> and <em>C. viridis</em>). Our findings indicate that accessory glands express most venom genes at significantly lower levels than the main gland, with a few exceptions that may represent biologically relevant contributions of accessory glands to venom. The two glands also exhibit distinct trans-regulatory environments that we link to key differences in their underlying physiology and secretory roles. Our results further suggest that two signaling pathways that regulate venom, the unfolded protein response (UPR) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), show significantly lower activation in the accessory gland. These findings provide insight into the physiological and functional diversification of snake venom systems, highlighting how distinct glandular systems have evolved contrasting and complementary roles driven by distinct physiological and regulatory mechanisms.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"259 ","pages":"Article 108376"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143942354","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Seasonal variation in tetramine content in Korean marine gastropods Neptunea arthritica and Neptunea eulimata","authors":"Hyunjun Lee ,&nbsp;Bong Ki Park ,&nbsp;Kwang-Sik Choi ,&nbsp;Nobuhisa Kajino ,&nbsp;Wan-Ok Lee ,&nbsp;Changsun Choi ,&nbsp;Hyang Sook Chun ,&nbsp;Jihyun Lee","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108379","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108379","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Tetramine is a toxin that is primarily found in the salivary glands of carnivorous marine gastropods. Countries, such as South Korea and Japan, where marine gastropods are commonly consumed, continue to report annual cases of tetramine poisoning. Therefore, it is crucial to investigate the seasonal variations in tetramine content in these species. In this study, liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC–MS/MS) was employed to analyze the monthly variations in tetramine content across various tissues of <em>Neptunea arthritica</em> and <em>Neptunea eulimata</em> collected over a one-year period (September 2023 to August 2024) from the East Coast of Korea. The condition indices of both species were calculated to estimate their spawning seasons. Compared to other tissues (i.e., the foot and midgut gland), the highest tetramine content was consistently found in the salivary glands across all seasons and species. The tetramine content in the salivary glands peaked in November 2023 (4580.05 mg/kg for <em>N. arthritica</em> and 7762.16 mg/kg for <em>N. eulimata</em>) and declined to the lowest value in February 2024 (568.10 mg/kg for <em>N. arthritica</em> and 679.35 mg/kg for <em>N. eulimata</em>). After the spawning season, the increased feeding activity may result in elevated tetramine levels, potentially contributing to prey capture. Therefore, removing the salivary glands of these species, particularly in November, is critical to mitigate the risk of tetramine poisoning.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"262 ","pages":"Article 108379"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-04-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143906455","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Prevention and management of adverse effects following botulinum neurotoxin injection therapy in the larynx and tongue","authors":"Lucy Hicklin,&nbsp;Winnie Yeung","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108380","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108380","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Botulinum neurotoxin therapy is the gold standard for managing focal dystonias affecting the larynx and tongue. However, the region's complex anatomy and vital functions pose unique challenges for the injector. This article provides an overview of the pre-treatment evaluations and injection techniques to minimise the adverse effects commonly linked to botulinum neurotoxin therapy for conditions including laryngeal dystonia, cricopharyngeal dysfunction and lingual dystonia, to achieve safe and effective patient outcomes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"262 ","pages":"Article 108380"},"PeriodicalIF":2.6,"publicationDate":"2025-04-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143906040","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}