Toxicon最新文献

{"title":"Hepatoprotection conferred by curcumin against emamectin benzoate-induced oxidative stress, biochemical, molecular, and histological disturbances in rats.","authors":"Fatma M El-Demerdash, Reda A Soker, Hoda M Nasr, Raghda A El-Sayed, Wenyi Kang","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108567","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108567","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Excessive use of pesticides frequently contaminates the environment and poses health risks. This study aimed to investigate the potential hepatoprotective effect of curcumin against the toxic effects of emamectin benzoate in rats. Six groups of male Wistar rats were used: control, curcumin (Cur; 200 mg/kg), Emamectin benzoate - low dose (EMB-LD; 5 mg/kg BW), Emamectin benzoate - high dose (EMB-HD; 10 mg/kg BW), Cur plus EMB-LD, and Cur plus EMB-HD, respectively. Rats received their doses orally for 28 days. Results revealed that curcumin possesses high antioxidant activity, as demonstrated by its DPPH, ABTS+ scavenging activity, and FRAP chelating capacity. The administration of EMB-LD or EMB-HD elevated lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation and significantly decreased enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants. Liver enzyme activities and lipid and protein contents in rat serum were markedly altered after EMB treatment. Additionally, pro-inflammatory and apoptosis-related genes, and tissue structure were significantly altered in rats that received EMB. However, rats receiving Cur only enhanced the antioxidant status and reduced oxidation biomarkers. Further, rats that received curcumin and then were intoxicated with EMB exhibited significant modulation in most measured parameters compared with their respective treated groups. Conclusively, rats treated with both low and high doses of EMB showed pronounced hazardous effects in a dose-dependent manner; however, Cur proved its powerful role against EMB hepatotoxicity.</p>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":" ","pages":"108567"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145024273","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"PLGA nanoparticles provide a safe delivery system for bee venom and melittin to alleviate their hepatotoxic effects in mice.","authors":"Asmaa M Shehata, Hala F Aref, Mohamed Y Mahmoud, Alaa F Bakr, Maha A Salem, Eiman M El-Saied","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108564","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108564","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Bee venom and its principal peptide, melittin, are natural compounds with many therapeutic effects. They are also known for their hemolytic and cytotoxic properties that render their medical applications. Poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) is a popular polymer used for different drug delivery. The present study investigated the toxic effect of bee venom and melittin on the liver of mice. Furthermore, the impact of delivering bee venom and melittin via PLGA nanoparticles on reducing their toxic effects was investigated. Fifty male mice were divided randomly into five equal groups and were injected intra-peritoneally for 3 weeks as follows: control (saline), bee venom (15μg/kg), melittin (500μg/kg), bee venom loaded PLGA NPs (15μg/kg), PEG targeted melittin-encapsulated PLGA-NPs (250 μg/kg). The hepatotoxic effect was examined through liver function tests (alanine aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase), and oxidative stress was determined (total antioxidant capacity, malondialdehyde). Additionally, apoptosis (DNA fragmentation test, caspase3), inflammation (IL1β) and histopathological analysis were measured. The results revealed that melittin and bee venom have toxic effects on the liver, which were evidenced by increased liver enzymes and oxidative stress markers, in addition to inflammation and apoptosis caused by both substances. On the other hand, using the PLGA delivery system ameliorated most of these toxic effects. The present study proved that bee venom and melittin cause hepatotoxic effects and using the PLGA delivery system reduced most of these toxic effects enabling safer usage of melittin and bee venom in the future.</p>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":" ","pages":"108564"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145024255","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Mechanistic insights into aristolochic acid-induced hepatocellular carcinoma: a multi-dimensional analysis integrating network toxicology, machine learning, and molecular dynamics simulation.","authors":"Can Liu, Ru Qiao, Peng He, Wang Chen, Xiangting Gao, Fuyuan He","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108576","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108576","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Aristolochic acids (AA) are naturally occurring carcinogens found in traditional herbal medicines derived from Aristolochia species. This study explores the potential link between AA and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), aiming to uncover key molecular targets driving AA-induced hepatocarcinogenesis.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Toxicogenomic databases were used to identify AA-related toxicological profiles and targets, which were integrated with HCC-associated gene datasets. Protein-protein interaction networks were constructed, followed by enrichment analyses. A multi-machine learning framework was applied to prioritize candidate genes. Bioinformatic validation included immunohistochemistry, survival analysis, and immune infiltration profiling. Compound-protein interactions and structural stability were assessed via molecular docking and molecular dynamics simulations.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>We identified 2378 overlapping genes between AA and HCC. Enrichment analyses revealed significant activation of proteasome, cell cycle, and antigen processing pathways. PSMB4 was prioritized as a core gene, overexpressed in HCC tissues, associated with poor prognosis (HR = 1.69, p < 0.05), and strongly correlated with regulatory T cell and M2 macrophage infiltration. Docking and MD simulations confirmed strong and stable binding (-8.7 kcal/mol) between AA and PSMB4.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>This study establishes a potential mechanistic connection between AA and HCC using an integrated network toxicology and machine learning, offering novel insights into toxicant-driven hepatocarcinogenesis and potential therapeutic targets.</p>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":" ","pages":"108576"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145024239","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"From the sting to the laboratory: A review of the venom peptides of social wasps (Hymenoptera: Vespidae)","authors":"Samanta Brito ,&nbsp;Matheus Nolasco Ribeiro Alves ,&nbsp;Alexandre Somavilla","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108566","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108566","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Social wasps make up a significant part to the diversity of the Hymenoptera order, one of the most varied insect groups. Beyond their ecological importance, these insects use their venom for defense, protecting their colonies. The venom of social wasps are rich in biologically active substances, including biogenic amines, peptides, proteins, enzymes, allergens, and volatile compounds. These substances can trigger various immune responses, such as allergic reactions and inflammation, and certain peptides demonstrate antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antitumor, anticoagulant, and anticancer properties. However, the limited availability of venom and the lack of studies of function for its bioactive compounds remain challenges to its effective utilization. This review compiles 124 peptides isolated from social wasps, highlighting their relevance in biotechnology and medicine, while also discussing their limitations and potential applications. These peptides were isolated from 39 species of social wasps worldwide, underscoring the potential of these insects' venom as a promising source for developing new pharmaceutical products and as a catalyst for drug discovery. Additionally, this work emphasizes a significant gap in research on social wasps collected in the Brazilian Amazon.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"267 ","pages":"Article 108566"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145016270","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessment of antimicrobial, antiproliferative, and chemotactic properties of ranatuerin 2-PMe from cutaneous secretion of Lithobates palmipes (Spix, 1824) (Anura, Ranidae)","authors":"Géssica Gomes Barbosa ,&nbsp;Carlos José Correia de Santana ,&nbsp;Tulíbia Laurindo Silva ,&nbsp;Welthon de Souza Teotonio ,&nbsp;Lucas Fontes ,&nbsp;Raquel Takaya ,&nbsp;Ricardo Bentes de Azevedo ,&nbsp;Patrícia Maria Guedes Paiva ,&nbsp;Osmindo Rodrigues Pires Júnior ,&nbsp;Wagner Fontes ,&nbsp;Mariana S. Castro ,&nbsp;Thiago Henrique Napoleão","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108565","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108565","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Lithobates palmipes</em> is a frog species whose skin secretions contain peptides belonging to the ranatuerin, brevinin, and temporin families. In this study, the peptide ranatuerin-2PMe was isolated and evaluated for its antimicrobial, hemolytic, antiproliferative, and chemotactic activities. Ranatuerin-2PMe (2933.2 Da) was purified from <em>L. palmipes</em> skin secretions (collected via electrical stimulation) using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography, and its primary structure was subsequently determined through Edman degradation. The peptide was then synthesized via solid-phase peptide synthesis. Ranatuerin-2PMe exhibited antibacterial activity against <em>Staphylococcus aureus</em>, <em>Escherichia coli</em>, <em>Acinetobacter baumannii</em>, <em>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</em>, and <em>Klebsiella pneumoniae</em> carbapenemase-producer (KPC), with minimal inhibitory concentrations ranging from 2 μM to 128 μM. It demonstrated low hemolytic activity (18.3 ± 1.2 %) at 128 μM. Furthermore, ranatuerin-2PMe showed antiproliferative effects against HeLa and HaCaT cell lines, with IC₅₀ values of 12.4 μM and 16.9 μM, respectively. Ranatuerin-2PMe induced neutrophil migration in a pattern consistent with chemotactic activity, while maintaining neutrophil viability. In conclusion, a novel peptide from the ranatuerin family was identified in <em>L. palmipes</em> skin secretions, demonstrating promising biomedical potential as an antimicrobial, anticancer, and immunomodulatory agent. However, its cytotoxicity toward HaCaT cells highlights the need for further studies to evaluate its selectivity and safety profile.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"267 ","pages":"Article 108565"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145008433","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Neuroprotective potential of fortunellin against titanium dioxide nanoparticles induced neurotoxicity via regulating NLRP3, HMGB1/RAGE, and NF-κB pathway: A biochemical, histological and in-silico experimentation","authors":"Abdulaziz Saleh Alkhoshaiban ,&nbsp;Muhammad Faisal Hayat ,&nbsp;Mahmoud El Safadi ,&nbsp;Hesham M. Hassan ,&nbsp;Ali Akbar ,&nbsp;Syeda Sania Zahara ,&nbsp;Ahmed Al-Emam","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108562","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108562","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO₂-NPs) are widely used in the production of various industrial and commercial products and reported to cause neurotoxicity in Sprague Dawley rats. Fortunellin (FRN) is a potent flavonoid with diverse biological properties. This research was performed to explore the protective role FRN against TiO₂-NPs induced brain damage. Thirty-six male Sprague Dawley rats were categorized into control, TiO₂-NPs (120 mgkg⁻¹), TiO₂-NPs (120 mgkg⁻¹) + FRN (20 mgkg⁻¹), and FRN (20 mgkg⁻¹) alone treated group. TiO₂-NPs significantly (p &lt; 0.001) provoked the expressions of High-Mobility Group Box 1 (HMGB1) (4.1-fold), NLRP3 inflammasome (3.7-fold), nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) (4.4-fold), interleukin-6 (IL-6) (4.0-fold), Receptor for Advanced Glycation End products (RAGE) (3.9-fold), Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) (3.5-fold), Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) (4.1-fold), and Tumor necrosis-factor-alpha (TNF-α) (4.6-fold) in brain tissues. The enzymatic activities of HO-1 (52 %), GPx (43 %), SOD (49 %), GST (46 %), CAT (41 %), and GSR (45 %) along with contents of GSH (57%) were suppressed (p &lt; 0.001) while the levels of ROS (2.8-fold) and MDA (3.2-fold) were promoted substantially (p &lt; 0.001) after TiO₂-NPs intoxication. Moreover, brain health was compromised after TiO₂-NPs exposure which is evident by reduced concentrations of Nerve growth factor (NGF) (58 %), Synaptophysin (63 %), Glial cell line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) (54 %), Postsynaptic density 95 (PSD-95) (49 %), and Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) (61 %). Besides, TiO₂-NPs administration significantly (p &lt; 0.001) increased the levels of Caspase-9 (3.2-fold), Bax (2.9-fold), and Caspase-3 (3.5 %) while reducing the level of Bcl-2 (55 %). Histological semi-quantitative scoring revealed that TiO₂-NPs caused severe cortical and hippocampal degeneration (Injury score: 2.7 ± 0.2 vs 0.3 ± 0.14 in control; p &lt; 0.001). However, FRN concurrent supplementation remarkably alleviated aforementioned alterations, restoring antioxidant enzyme’s levels by 35–62 %, reducing inflammatory gene’s expression by up to 72 %, improving neurotropic factors level by 45–58 % and reducing apoptotic indices by 61–69 % (p &lt; 0.01). FRN shows promising result as a neuroprotective agent in rats, warranting further clinical research.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"267 ","pages":"Article 108562"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145008472","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Scorpion venom gland transcriptomics: A systematic review","authors":"Jennifer Alexandra Solano-Godoy ,&nbsp;Melissa Betancourt-Osorio ,&nbsp;Marcela Orjuela-Rodriguez ,&nbsp;Jimmy Alexander Guerrero-Vargas ,&nbsp;Juan Carlos Sepulveda-Arias","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108563","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108563","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Scorpion venom is a complex biochemical arsenal with significant ecological and biomedical importance. Advances in transcriptomic techniques have provided valuable insights into the composition and functional diversity of venoms. This systematic review analyzes transcriptomic research conducted between 2010 and 2024, focusing on methodologies such as Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs) and Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS). 42 studies from four databases (Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect) were selected, showcasing their impact on detecting venom-related transcripts. The classification of venom components revealed a diverse range of bioactive molecules, including ion channel toxins, enzymes, antimicrobial peptides, and uncharacterized components with potential therapeutic applications. The findings emphasize the importance of multi-omic approaches in elucidating venom complexity and the potential applications of novel components in pharmacology and biotechnology. However, significant challenges remain, including the need for standardization and expanded research on underrepresented taxa. This review highlights the necessity for interdisciplinary efforts to bridge these gaps and fully harness the potential of scorpion venom studies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"267 ","pages":"Article 108563"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145008415","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Investigating the Influence of Hepatic Neoplasms on Bothrops Venom Biochemistry.","authors":"Caroline Tie Vespasiano, Caroline Serino-Silva, Giovanni Perez Machado Silveira, Fabíola Souza Rodrigues, Luciana Carla Rameh-de-Albuquerque, Sávio Stefanini Sant'anna, Kathleen Fernandes Grego, Anita Mitico Tanaka-Azevedo","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108561","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108561","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Snake envenoming is a relevant public health issue, especially in tropical regions worldwide. Bothrops venom is essential for antivenom production in Brazil; however, the impacts of hepatic neoplasms on venom composition remain unexplored. This study aimed to evaluate whether hepatic neoplasms and/or cysts influence the biochemical profile and enzymatic activity of venoms from five Bothrops species. Venoms from 17 snakes - 8 with hepatic alterations and 9 healthy - were analyzed using SDS-PAGE, Western blotting, ELISA, RP-HPLC, and enzymatic activity assays. The results revealed high intra- and interspecific variability, with no consistent pattern linking the presence of neoplasms to significant changes in venom protein composition or enzymatic activities. Occasional differences were observed in proteolytic, phospholipase A₂, L-amino acid oxidase activities and Minimum Coagulant Dose in some individuals; however, these were not directly attributable to hepatic pathology. Immunoreactivity with the commercial antibothropic antivenom remained effective in all samples. The study concludes that hepatic neoplasms or cysts do not compromise venom biochemical integrity for antivenom production, reinforcing the viability of using these individuals for venom extraction in captivity for public health purposes.</p>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":" ","pages":"108561"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145006611","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Targeting the glabellar frown lines with OnabotulinumtoxinA: In-silico evidence supporting concentrated, low-volume injection protocols","authors":"Eqram Rahman ,&nbsp;Jean DA. Carruthers ,&nbsp;Munim Ahmed ,&nbsp;Aofie Flanagan ,&nbsp;Hsien-Li Peter Peng ,&nbsp;Greg J. Goodman ,&nbsp;Woffles TL. Wu ,&nbsp;William Richard Webb","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108560","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108560","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Botulinum Neurotoxin Type A (BoNT-A) remains the cornerstone of glabellar frown line treatment, yet conventional low-dose, high-volume protocols often result in limited durability and imprecise diffusion. This study presents multiscale, in silico framework specifically designed to evaluate high-dose (60–80 Units), low-volume (≤0.045 mL/site) BoNT-A glabellar injection strategies across anatomically realistic conditions. Using a synthetic cohort of 20,000 virtual patients, we integrated finite element modelling of anisotropic tissue diffusion, receptor-specific pharmacokinetics/pharmacodynamics (PK/PD), and machine learning-based off-target risk prediction. Our findings demonstrate that reduced-volume, concentrated dosing significantly enhances SV2 receptor occupancy (up to 93.7 %), confines toxin diffusion within target musculature, and prolongs clinical duration to 124.7 days—surpassing conventional benchmarks. To our knowledge, this is the first study to mechanistically simulate dose-volume interactions of BoNT-A in 3D facial anatomy using integrated PK/PD and Artificial Intelligence models. Our model revealed a 30–70 % variance in BoNT-A exposure and efficacy when comparing fixed-dose protocols (as per FDA labels) to weight-adjusted regimens across simulated populations. These results establish a data-driven rationale for transitioning toward precision-targeted toxin administration and lay the foundation for prospective clinical trials and personalized dosing algorithms. While robust, the study relies on synthetic data and model-driven assumptions; clinical validation is required to confirm translatability.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":"267 ","pages":"Article 108560"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145001139","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Reply to comment on: \"Interaction of cholinesterase inhibitors with snake venom acetylcholinesterase from snake species of Southern Africa\" published in Toxicon265 (2025) 108475.","authors":"Anél Petzer, Jacobus P Petzer, Stephanus J Cloete","doi":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108559","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxicon.2025.108559","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":23289,"journal":{"name":"Toxicon","volume":" ","pages":"108559"},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144993589","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}