Toxins最新文献

{"title":"Soluble Activin Receptor Type IIB Improves Muscle Regeneration Following <i>Crotalus atrox</i> Venom-Induced Damage.","authors":"Medha Sonavane, Ali Alqallaf, Robert D Mitchell, José R Almeida, Soheil Gilabadi, Nicholas J Richards, Sodiq Adeyemi, Jarred Williams, Olli Ritvos, Sakthivel Vaiyapuri, Ketan Patel","doi":"10.3390/toxins17020059","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17020059","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Viper bite envenoming often results in prominent skeletal muscle damage. According to our previous studies, the prolonged presence of <i>Crotalus atrox</i> venom toxins induced extensive muscle damage, which mimicked the outcome of chronic muscle damage often seen in human muscular dystrophies. In the case of chronic muscle damage, two critical processes occur: muscle regeneration is impaired, and fibrosis develops. Myostatin/activin signalling is a key regulator of both of these processes. Myostatin and its closely related molecules, in particular activin, inhibit the proliferation and differentiation of myocytes while promoting proliferation of fibroblasts and expression of extracellular matrix proteins. Thus, attenuating myostatin/activin signalling offers an attractive means of promoting muscle development while decreasing fibrosis. Hence, we have used the soluble activin receptor type IIb, which acts as a ligand trap for both myostatin and activin, to dampen signalling and assessed whether this intervention could alter the pathological trajectory of <i>C. atrox</i> venom-induced muscle damage in mice. We report that the soluble activin receptor type IIb treatment increased the size of regenerating fibres while reducing the level of fibrotic tissues in venom-damaged muscle.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-01-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11861606/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143493311","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Establishing Reference Genes for Accurate Gene Expression Profiling in Toxigenic <i>Bacillus cereus</i>.","authors":"Tanja V Edelbacher, Astrid Laimer-Digruber, Michael W Pfaffl, Monika Ehling-Schulz","doi":"10.3390/toxins17020058","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17020058","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><i>Bacillus cereus</i> is a Gram-positive pathogen associated with foodborne illnesses and severe non-gastrointestinal infections. Robust tools for accurate gene transcription analysis are essential for studying toxin gene expression dynamics and deciphering the complex regulatory networks orchestrating the expression of toxin and virulence factors. This study aimed to identify reliable reference genes for normalizing reverse transcription quantitative PCR (RT-qPCR) data in toxigenic <i>B. cereus</i>. An emetic and an enteropathogenic strain were used as model organisms to establish a suitable reference gene set to monitor the dynamics of toxin gene transcription. Ten candidate reference genes were evaluated for their expression stability using geNorm, NormFinder, BestKeeper and the ΔCq method, with the final rankings integrated via RefFinder. Among the tested genes, <i>rho</i>, <i>rpoD</i> and <i>recA</i> were identified as the most stable expressed reference genes across all tested conditions. As shown in this proof-of-principle study, the established reference gene set provides a suitable tool to investigate the influence of extrinsic and intrinsic factors on toxin gene transcription. In conclusion, our newly established reference gene set provides a robust basis for studying toxin gene expression in <i>B. cereus</i> and contributes to a better understanding of its pathogenicity and potential strategies to mitigate its harmful effects.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-01-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11860165/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143493663","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effects of Dietary Fiber Supplementation on Modulating Uremic Toxins and Inflammation in Chronic Kidney Disease Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.","authors":"Wannasit Wathanavasin, Wisit Cheungpasitporn, Charat Thongprayoon, Tibor Fülöp","doi":"10.3390/toxins17020057","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17020057","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Emerging evidence supports the beneficial effects of dietary fiber supplementation in alleviating gut dysbiosis, which leads to a reduction in uremic toxins and inflammatory markers in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients. However, current evidence-based renal nutrition guidelines do not provide recommendations regarding dietary fiber intake. We performed a systematic review and meta-analysis to investigate and highlight the effects of dietary fiber supplementation on modulating uremic toxins and inflammatory markers in individuals with CKD, with or without dialysis. The eligible randomized controlled trials (RCTs) were identified from PubMed, Scopus, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled trials until 27 November 2024. The results were synthesized using a random-effects model and presented as standardized mean differences (SMDs) with a 95% confidence interval (CI). A total of 21 studies with 700 patients were included. When compared with the control group, dietary fiber supplementation ranging from 6 to 50 g/day, for typically more than 4 weeks, could significantly reduce the levels of serum uremic toxins, including p-cresyl sulfate, indoxyl sulfate, and blood urea nitrogen (SMD -0.22, -0.34, -0.25, respectively, with <i>p</i>-values < 0.05), as well as biomarkers of inflammation, including interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor alpha (SMD -0.44, -0.34, respectively, with <i>p</i>-values < 0.05). These beneficial effects were consistent across different types of fibers and CKD status (with or without dialysis). However, no significant reduction in serum trimethylamine N-oxide, uric acid, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein levels was observed with dietary fiber intervention. This study would pave the way for prioritizing dietary quality, particularly a fiber-rich diet, beyond the traditional focus on the quantities of protein, energy, and electrolyte restrictions among individuals with CKD.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-01-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11860371/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143493658","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Single-Chain Variable Fragments: Targeting Snake Venom Phospholipase A₂ and Serine Protease.","authors":"Ying Jia, Ariane Garcia, Elizabeth Reyes","doi":"10.3390/toxins17020055","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17020055","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Snakebite is a critical global public health issue, causing substantial mortality and morbidity, particularly in tropical and subtropical regions. The development of innovative antivenoms targeting snake venom toxins is therefore of paramount importance. In this study, we adopted an epitope-directed approach to design three degenerate 15-mer peptides based on amino acid sequence alignments of snake venom phospholipase A₂s (PLA₂s) and snake venom serine proteases (SVSPs) from snake (<i>Crotalus atrox</i>). By leveraging their immunogenic and inhibitory profiles, these peptides were specifically designed to target the Asp49 and Lys49 variants of PLA₂ and SVSP toxins. Groups of five mice were immunized with each peptide, and IgG mRNA was subsequently extracted from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) and spleen lymphocytes of the top three responders. The extracted mRNA was reverse-transcribed into complementary DNA (cDNA), and the variable regions of the IgG heavy and kappa chains were amplified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). These amplified regions were then linked with a 66-nucleotide spacer to construct single-chain variable fragments (scFvs). Sequence analysis of 48 randomly selected plasmids from each PLA₂ and SVSP scFv library revealed that over 80% contained scFv sequences with notable diversity observed in the complementarity-determining regions (CDRs), particularly CDR3. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) results demonstrated that the SP peptide elicited a broader immune response in mice compared to the Asp49 peptide, implying the strong immunogenicity of the SP peptide. These scFvs represent a promising foundation for the development of recombinant human monoclonal antibodies targeting snake PLA₂ and SVSP toxins, providing a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of snakebites.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-01-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11860530/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143493348","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Evaluation of a New ELISA-Based Kit for Total Microcystins as an Early Detection Tool for Microcystin Blooms in Source Waters and Its Application State-Wide to Oregon Source and Finished Drinking Waters.","authors":"Katie Adams, Kale Clauson, William A Adams, Rochelle G Labiosa, Theresa McBride, Aaron Borisenko, Stuart W Dyer, Ned Fairchild, Barry V Pepich","doi":"10.3390/toxins17020053","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17020053","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Due to cyanobacterial toxin (cyanotoxin) contamination issues in 2018, the city of Salem, Oregon, issued a 33-day do-not-drink advisory for vulnerable people among the 200,000 residents. After the incident, the state of Oregon put in place drinking water rules to require the routine testing of raw water, as well as finished water, in cases where the raw water cyanotoxin concentrations exceeded trigger values. The United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) total microcystins drinking water health advisory level (HAL) for small children is 0.3 µg/L. This is equivalent to the minimum reporting level (MRL) for EPA Method 546. Consequently, there was no ability to provide early warnings via toxin testing for total microcystins using the EPA method. In this study, we performed a comparison of the precision and accuracy of the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) described in the EPA method to a more sensitive assay, the Streptavidin-enhanced Sensitivity (SAES) assay. Based on these precision and accuracy studies and quantitation limit determinations and confirmations, the EPA Office of Ground Water and Drinking Water (OGWDW) has concluded the SAES kit meets the requirements of EPA Method 546. With an MRL that is one-third of the original concentration, the new kit provides a small but critical window for identifying early warnings. Challenges remain with providing early warnings due to the variability in bloom dynamics; however, the new MRL allowed Oregon to lower the trigger level for susceptible systems, thereby providing an additional early warning.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-01-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11861646/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143493493","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Identification of Potential Therapeutic Targets Against Anthrax-Toxin-Induced Liver and Heart Damage.","authors":"Lihong Wu, Yanping Chen, Yongyong Yan, Haiyan Wang, Cynthia D Guy, John Carney, Carla L Moreno, Anaisa Quintanilla-Arteaga, Fernando Monsivais, Zhichao Zheng, Mingtao Zeng","doi":"10.3390/toxins17020054","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17020054","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Anthrax represents a disease resulting from infection by toxin-secreting bacteria, <i>Bacillus anthracis</i>. This research aimed to identify new therapeutic targets to combat anthrax. We performed assays to assess cell viability, apoptosis, glycogen consumption, and compound uptake and release in hepatocytes and cardiomyocytes responding to anthrax toxins. Microarray analysis was carried out to identify the genes potentially involved in toxin-induced toxicity. Knockdown experiments were performed to validate the contributions of the identified genes. Our study showed that anthrax edema toxin (EdTx) and lethal toxin (LeTx) induced lethal damage in mouse liver and heart, respectively. Microarray assays showed that 218 genes were potentially involved in EdTx-mediated toxicity, and 18 genes were potentially associated with LeTx-mediated toxicity. Among these genes, the knockdown of <i>Rgs1</i>, <i>Hcar2</i>, <i>Fosl2</i>, <i>Hcar2</i>, <i>Cxcl2</i>, and <i>Cxcl3</i> protected primary hepatocytes from EdTx-induced cytotoxicity. Plasminogen activator inhibitor 1 (PAI-1)-encoding <i>Serpine1</i> constituted the most significantly upregulated gene in response to LeTx treatment in mouse liver. PAI-1 knockout mouse models had a higher tolerance to LeTx compared with wild-type counterparts, suggesting that PAI-1 is essential for LeTx-induced toxicity and might represent a therapeutic target in LeTx-induced tissue damage. These results provide potential therapeutic targets for combating anthrax-toxin-induced liver and heart damage.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-01-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11861023/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143493617","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Anthrax: Transmission, Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment.","authors":"Nitika Sangwan, Aakriti Gangwal, Preksha Jain, Chokey Langtso, Shruti Srivastava, Uma Dhawan, Renu Baweja, Yogendra Singh","doi":"10.3390/toxins17020056","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17020056","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><i>Bacillus anthracis</i> is a deadly pathogen that under unfavourable conditions forms highly resistant spores which enable them to survive for a long period of time. Spores of <i>B. anthracis</i> are transmitted through the contaminated soil or animal products and enter to the host through the skin, lungs or oral route and can cause cutaneous, injection, inhalation and gastrointestinal anthrax, respectively. The disease is caused by the toxin which is produced by them once they germinate within the host cell. Anthrax toxin is the major virulence factor which has the ability to kill the host cell. The role of protein kinases and phosphatases of <i>B. anthracis</i> in toxin production and other virulence related properties have also been reported. There are two vaccines, BioThrax and CYFENDUS^TM, which are approved by the FDA-USA to prevent anthrax disease. Recently, anthrax toxin has also been shown to be a potential candidate for cancer therapeutics. Through present review, we aim to provide insights into sporulation, transmission and pathogenesis of <i>B. anthracis</i> as well as the current state of its prevention, treatment, vaccines and possible therapeutic uses in cancer.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-01-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11860322/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143493330","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effect of a Yeast β-Glucan on the Performance, Intestinal Integrity, and Liver Function of Broiler Chickens Fed a Diet Naturally Contaminated with <i>Fusarium</i> Mycotoxins.","authors":"Virginie Marquis, Julie Schulthess, Francesc Molist, Regiane R Santos","doi":"10.3390/toxins17020051","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17020051","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This study evaluated the effect of a yeast β-glucan on the performance, gut health, liver function, and bacterial translocation of broiler chickens fed a diet contaminated with <i>Fusarium</i> mycotoxins. One-day-old male Ross broilers (n = 234) were divided into three treatments with six replicates each, and a cage containing 13 birds was the experimental unit. The animals were fed a maize-soybean-based control diet or maize-soybean diets naturally contaminated with <i>Fusarium</i> mycotoxins, where deoxynivalenol (DON) was the major mycotoxin (~3 mg/kg), followed by zearalenone (ZEN) (~0.5 mg/kg). The <i>Fusarium</i>-contaminated diet was either supplemented or not with a yeast β-glucan over 28 days. Dietary exposure to <i>Fusarium</i> mycotoxins did not affect production performance. On the other hand, <i>Fusarium</i> mycotoxin exposure significantly decreased jejunum villus height (VH) and crypt depth (CD) on d13, and this effect was counteracted by the yeast β-glucan. On d28, the jejunum VH:CD ratio was significantly higher in the broiler chickens that were fed the <i>Fusarium</i>-contaminated diet with yeast β-glucan (125 mg/kg diet) added to it. The ileal villus area was significantly decreased in the broiler chickens fed <i>Fusarium</i>-contaminated diet, regardless of the supplementation with yeast β-glucan. Dietary contamination caused intestinal oxidative stress and inflammation, probably affecting nutrient absorption on d28, and resulted in a significant increase in the translocation of <i>Escherichia coli</i> to the liver. Dietary supplementation with yeast β-glucan minimized these negative effects.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-01-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11860818/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143493526","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Contamination Status and Health Risk Assessment of 73 Mycotoxins in Four Edible and Medicinal Plants Using an Optimized QuEChERS Pretreatment Coupled with LC-MS/MS.","authors":"Xiaojing Huang, Rui Feng, Qing Hu, Xiuhong Mao, Heng Zhou","doi":"10.3390/toxins17020052","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17020052","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The current status of multi-mycotoxin contamination in edible and medicinal plants demands urgent development of high-throughput analytical methods for mycotoxin detection. In this study, a reliable and sensitive method for the simultaneous analysis of 73 mycotoxins was established and successfully applied to detect mycotoxins in 260 samples of four dual-purpose plants (lotus seed, coix seed, licorice root, and dried tangerine peel). Sample preparation involved optimized QuEChERS (Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged, and Safe) extraction combined with liquid-liquid extraction purification, and an enhanced ion pair library was established to reduce matrix interference and improve the method's universality. Method validation demonstrated recovery rates ranging from 61.6% to 118.6% for all compounds, with relative standard deviations (RSDs) below 15%. The limits of detection (LODs) and quantification (LOQs) ranged from 0.25-12.25 μg/kg and 0.5-25 μg/kg, respectively. Based on the contamination analysis and health risk assessment using Margin of Exposure (MOE) and Hazard Index (HI) methods, we found that multi-mycotoxin contamination is highly prevalent in edible and medicinal plants, with different components being susceptible to invasion by distinct fungal genera. Seed-type plants showed high susceptibility to Aspergillus (53.3%) and Fusarium (22.2%) contamination, with MOE values below 10,000 for aflatoxins indicating potential health risks. Physical state and good storage conditions significantly influenced contamination levels, with fragmented samples showing substantially higher mycotoxin levels. Additionally, mycotoxins with associated biosynthetic metabolic pathways were frequently detected simultaneously in highly contaminated samples. Based on these findings, we recommend implementing strict moisture control during storage, maintaining intact product form where possible, and establishing comprehensive supplier qualification systems. This study provides valuable reference for monitoring mycotoxin contamination in similar plants.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-01-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11860848/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143493409","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessment of Natural Occurrence and Risk of the Emerging Mycotoxin Moniliformin in South Korea.","authors":"So Young Woo, Sang Yoo Lee, Su Been Park, Si Eun Kim, Young Woon Kang, Hyang Sook Chun","doi":"10.3390/toxins17020050","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17020050","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Moniliformin (MON) is a highly polar, emerging <i>Fusarium</i> mycotoxin with a low molecular weight. It is known to exhibit potentially harmful effects on public and animal health. This study aimed to comprehensively assess the natural occurrence of MON in various foods marketed in South Korea and to perform a risk assessment. An analytical method for MON quantification using strong anion exchange clean-up combined with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry was validated across four different food matrices (white rice, sorghum, corn oil, and baby food), exhibiting excellent accuracy, precision, and sensitivity. A total of six food categories, 33 food commodities, and 253 food samples were included in this study. Maize, sorghum, Job's tears, and perilla seeds were identified as the major contributors to MON contamination. Estimated daily intake (EDI) was calculated for both mean and 95th percentile extreme dietary scenarios using upper and lower bound approaches. The highest EDI was observed in the 0-2-year and 3-6-year age groups, primarily for cereal grains. The margin of exposure (MOE) values for maize consumption ranged from 2544 to 7482. These results highlight the potential health concerns associated with MON, necessitating targeted risk management strategies.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 2","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-01-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11860269/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143493332","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}