South African Journal of Chemical Engineering最新文献

{"title":"Analysis of moisture content and drying kinetics model for drying of Cananga odorata flowers","authors":"Tutik Muji Setyoningrum ,&nbsp;Heri Septya Kusuma ,&nbsp;Salsabila Hana Umamah ,&nbsp;Naftalisda Elveta Salsabila ,&nbsp;Handoko Darmokoesoemo ,&nbsp;Andrew Nosakhare Amenaghawon","doi":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.03.006","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.03.006","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The inefficient drying process of <em>Cananga odorata</em> flowers leads to significant quality degradation and energy consumption. This study investigates the drying kinetics of <em>Cananga odorata</em> using oven-assisted drying at 50 °C, aiming to identify the most suitable kinetic model for optimizing the process. Moisture content, moisture ratio, and drying rate were analyzed, and three models—Lewis, Page, and Henderson &amp; Pabis—were evaluated using statistical parameters (R², SSE, RMSE, MSE, and X²). The results showed that the Page model provided the best fit (R² = 0.9970, SSE = 0.0039, RMSE = 0.0180), accurately describing the drying behavior. The drying process exhibited an initial rapid moisture loss phase followed by a slower drying period. These findings offer critical insights into optimizing <em>Cananga odorata</em> drying processes for industrial applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":21926,"journal":{"name":"South African Journal of Chemical Engineering","volume":"52 ","pages":"Pages 292-299"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143696144","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Optimization of methyl orange bio-decolorization by UiO-66 and brown rot fungus Daedalea dickinsii composite using response surface methodology","authors":"Adi Setyo Purnomo ,&nbsp;Taufiq Rinda Alkas ,&nbsp;Asranudin ,&nbsp;Alya Awinatul Rohmah ,&nbsp;Sevila Cello Kalvari ,&nbsp;Nova Ainur Rohmah ,&nbsp;Ratna Ediati ,&nbsp;Yuji Tsutsumi","doi":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.03.004","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.03.004","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Azo dyes, particularly methyl orange (MO), pose environmental challenges due to their stability, toxicity, and carcinogenicity. This study explored the potential of a novel composite material for MO removal. The composite comprised UiO-66 (a metal-organic framework), <em>Daedalea dickinsii</em> (DD) fungus biomass, and a polyvinyl alcohol-sodium alginate (PVA-SA) matrix. DD and UiO-66 were homogeneously distributed within the PVA-SA matrix to form beads. These beads achieved a promising MO decolorization efficiency of 68.95 % after 7 days, outperforming PVA-SA (43.30 %) and UiO-66@PVA-SA (54.49 %) alone. Kinetic studies revealed that the decolorization process followed a pseudo-second-order model with a high correlation coefficient (R² = 0.999). Further optimization using response surface methodology (RSM) identified the most effective conditions for MO biodecolorization: 50 mgL^-1 MO concentration, 20 °C incubation temperature, and 5.75 days incubation time. Experimental verification under these optimized conditions yielded a decolorization efficiency of 76.71 %, closely matching the RSM prediction (77.40 %). These findings suggest significant potential for this composite material in textile wastewater treatment for MO removal.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":21926,"journal":{"name":"South African Journal of Chemical Engineering","volume":"52 ","pages":"Pages 282-291"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143684825","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Advancements in eco-friendly metal recovery: Chemical separation and fluidized bed reactor technology","authors":"Kevin Eugene B. Tan,&nbsp;Angelo Earvin Sy Choi","doi":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.03.003","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.03.003","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Metals discharged from industrial plants have become a significant contributor to water pollution, particularly in regions undergoing rapid globalization and industrialization. While magnesium is considered a relatively benign metal pollutant, its presence can still lead to environmental concerns due to elevated total hardness levels in industrial wastewater. Moreover, the extraction of magnesium from wastewater presents an opportunity to recover a critical raw material that is in high demand across various industries. Chemical-based methods have traditionally been pivotal in the extraction and removal of impurities such as heavy metals from wastewater. This review aims to explore the conventional chemical-based separation processes and their evolution with the introduction of the relatively novel fluidized bed reactor (FBR) technology for treating various metals, specifically focusing on magnesium. A comprehensive compilation of literature on conventional treatment methods, including chemical precipitation, coagulation-flocculation, and flotation processes, was conducted. Additionally, advancements in heterogeneous and homogeneous fluidized bed granulation for FBR treatment processes were examined. The review sheds light on the advantages and limitations of these processes, identifying key insights and literature gaps. Furthermore, the review outlines potential applications and benefits associated with various extracted magnesium salt or crystal compounds. By synthesizing existing research, this review contributes to a deeper understanding of chemical separation and fluidized bed reactor technology in the context of magnesium recovery and environmental remediation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":21926,"journal":{"name":"South African Journal of Chemical Engineering","volume":"52 ","pages":"Pages 258-270"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143628584","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Biosynthesis and biological activity of silver nanoparticles from Zanthoxylum acanthopodium fruits","authors":"Ageng Azhar Amar ,&nbsp;Effendy De Lux Putra ,&nbsp;Denny Satria ,&nbsp;Panal Sitorus ,&nbsp;Hooi-Ling Lee ,&nbsp;Syukur Berkat Waruwu ,&nbsp;Mahatir Muhammad","doi":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.03.002","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.03.002","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Silver nanoparticles are silver particles at the nanoscale and have medicinal properties, one of which is antimicrobial. Plants are reducing agents that are highly recommended because they are environmentally friendly. This research aims to investigate the formation of silver nanoparticles mediated by Andaliman fruit (<em>Zanthoxylum acanthopodium</em> DC.) with the help of microwave irradiation and look at the antibacterial activity. Silver nanoparticles display a maximum peak spectrum at 430 nm. The particle size results in the Particle Size Analyzer test were 55.67 nm, showing a cubic crystal structure carried out using X-ray diffraction testing. Testing with Transmission Electron Microscopy shows an internal morphology size of 20.62 ± 10.93 nm and an external morphology size of 73.07 ± 17.90 nm with a round shape tested with Scanning Electron Microscopy. The results of the zeta potential test were obtained with a charge of -0.6 mV. Andaliman silver nanoparticles had strong Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC) values for all test bacterial isolates with MIC values in the range of 1.9–7.8 µg/mL and MBC values in the range of 3.9–15.6 µg/mL.. Also showed potential in inhibiting biofilm formation (2 MIC) and cell leakage of DNA (4 MIC) and protein (4 MIC) in all tested bacterial isolates. This phenomenon shows that Andaliman fruit can help reduce silver ions into silver nanoparticles, which have proven successful in antibacterial and antibiofilm testing and preventing cell DNA and protein leakage by showing great potential as a multifunctional antimicrobial agent. In the future, Andaliman silver nanoparticles have the potential to be further developed as an antibacterial alternative in the face of antibiotic resistance, as well as optimized in various medical, pharmaceutical, and industrial applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":21926,"journal":{"name":"South African Journal of Chemical Engineering","volume":"52 ","pages":"Pages 271-281"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143628585","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Simple one pot green synthesis of silver-palladium bimetallic nanoparticles: A fluorescent turn-off sensor for detection of lead ions in environmental water and its photocatalytic activity","authors":"Anitha Selvaraj ,&nbsp;Kannan Mukundamurthy ,&nbsp;Rangasamy Rajmohan ,&nbsp;P. Tamizhdurai","doi":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.03.001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.03.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Eco-friendly, simple method was developed for the green synthesis of bimetallic silver-palladium nanoparticles (BG-AgPd-NPs) using bael gum (Aegel marmelos) at ambient temperature. Bael gum aqueous solution acts as reducing agent and stabilizing agent by anchoring on to the nanoparticles through the phytochemical constituents present in it. This approach is inexpensive, environmentally benign, and free of hazardous reagents or solvents. The nano particles demonstrate excellent shelf life and stability for several weeks at room temperature. The synthesized nanoparticle was characterized using UV–visible spectrophotometry, Infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction analytical techniques. The new versatile material BG-AgPd-NPs exhibit remarkable fluorescent characteristic, enabling the detection of metal ion especially Pb²⁺ ions under laboratory conditions. The metal ion sensing property of BG-AgPd-NPs was assessed using a series of metal ions. The fluorescence studies exhibit excellent selectivity and sensitivity of the BG-AgPd-NPs towards the detection of Pb²⁺ ions. The BG-AgPd-NPs probe showed potential for lead ion detection with a limit of detection (LOD) &lt;1 µM, which is superior for the probe produced by greener route in the literature. Additionally, the nanoparticles exhibited excellent catalytic activity for dye degradation of rose bengal (RB) and toluidine blue (TB). BG-AgPd-NPs acts as a better catalyst for degradation of RB dye. The adaptability of the material for detecting metal ions in environmental water was also shown by the fluorescent sensing measurements.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":21926,"journal":{"name":"South African Journal of Chemical Engineering","volume":"52 ","pages":"Pages 243-257"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143609732","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Enzymatic synthesis of mono-diacylglycerides using off-grade crude palm kernel oil and waste glycerol from biodiesel production","authors":"Eka Kurniasih ,&nbsp;Rahmi ,&nbsp;Darusman ,&nbsp;Muhammad Dani Supardan","doi":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.02.010","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.02.010","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Enzymatic transesterification of mono-diacylglycerides (MDGs) is a promising solution to overcome the limitations of chemical transesterification such as low product selectivity, high-temperature reactions, and toxic residue. In this work, we synthesized MDGs by enzymatic transesterification using off-grade crude palm kernel oil (CPKO) and glycerol obtained from waste of biodiesel production as substrates, which was never reported previously. The waste glycerol was purified by acidification and neutralization processes. This study aimed to observe the influence of three important factors: concentration of <em>Candida antarctica</em> at 0.05–0.50 % (w/w), concentration of substrate at 1:1–1:10 (molar), and reaction temperature at 30–75 °C on the yield of MDGs. The reaction was performed in 300 mL of n-hexane for 8 h at a stirring speed of 400 rpm. The substrate conversion to MDGs was determined based on the reduction of free fatty acid (FFA) which was also confirmed by the gas chromatography. The study found that the concentration of <em>Candida antarctica</em> significantly affected substrate conversion compared to other factors. The optimum yield of MDGs was 69.84 %, which was achieved at a <em>Candida antarctica</em> concentration of 0.20 % (w/w). It contains 36.61 % of monoglycerides (MGs) and 33.23 % of diglycerides (DGs). The characteristics of optimum MDGs were similar to commercial products and agreed with Food and Agriculture Organization. Optimum MDGs were classified as oil-in-water emulsifiers with a hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) of 3.2. Application of 1.0 % (v/v) MDGs as emulsifiers can maintain emulsion stability for 30 days of storage, with a creaming index of 33.30 % and droplet size of ±326.09 μm.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":21926,"journal":{"name":"South African Journal of Chemical Engineering","volume":"52 ","pages":"Pages 227-242"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-02-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143552738","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Towards sustainable fabrication of modified PVDF membranes using CyreneTM: Exploring chitosan nanoparticles as bio-filler","authors":"Yusuf Wibisono ,&nbsp;Mohamad Farhan Adriyanto ,&nbsp;Marlyn Andriani ,&nbsp;Rachma Alfiana Rizqi ,&nbsp;Iqbal Shalahuddin ,&nbsp;Mujaroh Khotimah ,&nbsp;Suprihatin ,&nbsp;Mohamed Azlan Bin Hussain ,&nbsp;Eka Cahya Prima ,&nbsp;Lukman Noerochim","doi":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.01.012","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.01.012","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The urgent need for sustainable approaches in the fabrication of phase-inverted membranes underscores the significance of this study, which investigates a novel combination of bio-based membrane materials. Specifically, this work explores the use of Cyrene^TM, a green solvent, in conjunction with chitosan nanoparticles (CNPs) as a bio-filler for the production of sustainable polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) membranes. Additionally, lithium chloride (LiCl) was utilized both as a standalone additive and in combination with CNPs at varying concentrations to evaluate the effects on the structural, mechanical, and filtration properties of PVDF-Cyrene^TM membranes. The findings reveal that increasing concentrations of LiCl as a standalone additive (2.5; 3.0; and 3.5 wt %) yielded hydrophilic membranes with progressively denser and more refined nodular morphologies, which significantly compromised the membranes’ pure water flux (PWF). Notably, the incorporation of CNPs alongside LiCl markedly enhanced membrane pure water flux, particularly at concentrations of 0.5 wt % and 0.7 wt %. In contrast, a sharp decline in PWF was observed at 0.3 wt % CNPs, likely attributable to inadequate CNPs dispersion within the membrane matrix, leading to pore blockage and a substantial reduction in flux. Additionally, the addition of CNPs was most effective at 0.1 wt % to elevate the membrane tensile strength. This study demonstrates that the synergistic use of LiCl and CNPs represents a promising strategy to enhance the mechanical and filtration performance of PVDF membranes. However, the results emphasize the importance of carefully optimizing additive concentrations to achieve balance between various membrane properties. Furthermore, this work highlights the limitations of Cyrene^TM as a solvent, which warrants further investigation to improve its applicability in membrane fabrication processes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":21926,"journal":{"name":"South African Journal of Chemical Engineering","volume":"52 ","pages":"Pages 217-226"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-02-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143527346","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exploring the potential of carbon nanocone as nanocarrier and sensor for targeted drug delivery and the detection of lomustine using DFT method","authors":"Negar Rajabi ,&nbsp;Pouran Pourhakkak ,&nbsp;Mohammad Reza Jalali Sarvestani","doi":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.02.009","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.02.009","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The study investigated the feasibility of utilizing carbon nanocone (CNC) as nanocarrier and sensor for the targeted drug delivery and detection of lomustine (LMT), employing density functional theory calculations. The interaction between LMT and CNC was analyzed in three configurations to identify the most stable arrangement. The findings demonstrated a stable, exothermic, and spontaneous interaction, underscoring the potential of CNC as an effective nanocarrier for LMT delivery. Further analyses examined the influence of water as a solvent and temperature variations on the thermodynamic parameters, revealing that these factors had minimal impact on the interaction. Notably, interactions were slightly stronger in a vacuum and at lower temperatures. Additionally, Frontier Molecular Orbital analysis revealed a significant reduction in the CNC's bandgap from 7.536 eV to 5.199 eV, a decrease of approximately 31.015 %, following LMT adsorption. This reduction indicates a considerable enhancement in the electrochemical conductivity of CNC during LMT uptake, suggesting their promising application as diagnostic tools for the electrochemical detection of LMT.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":21926,"journal":{"name":"South African Journal of Chemical Engineering","volume":"52 ","pages":"Pages 211-216"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-02-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143512479","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Synthesis and characterization of BaO nanorods using azadirachta indica (neem) leaf extract for environmental applications","authors":"Valeria Quintana Mejia ,&nbsp;Reynel Cárdenas Hadechini ,&nbsp;Adriana Herrera Barros ,&nbsp;Zulia Caamaño De Ávila","doi":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.02.007","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.02.007","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Barium oxide nanorods were synthesized using the coprecipitation method in the presence of Azadirachta indica (neem) leaf extract as a stabilizing and protective agent. The BaO nanorods were characterized using different techniques, such as Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray Diffraction (XRD), and Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDX). TGA revealed that the thermal decomposition of Ba(OH)₂ into BaO occurs at temperatures above 490 °C for the sample obtained without neem. At the same time, BaO nanorods synthesized using the neem aqueous extract exhibited slightly lower thermal decomposition at 412 °C. However, it was found that a Ba(OH)₂ sample containing 12.5 % v/v neem extract, calcined at 350 °C for 15 mins, did not exhibit the presence of the O<img>H bond vibration in the FTIR analysis. The chemical elements Ba and O were confirmed in the neem and non-neem samples via EDX. SEM images showed a uniform flower-like distribution and rod- and sheet-like structures. XRD analysis confirmed the formation of BaO NPs with a tetragonal structure and crystallite sizes at the nanoscale (90, 15.9, and 8.6 nm). The synthesized BaO nanorods demonstrated a high methylene blue removal capacity, especially the 31.25 % v/v sample, which achieved a 48.6 % dye removal, suggesting the potential applications of these nanomaterials to reduce the contamination by organic components in aqueous media. The polyphenols present in neem leaves provided porosity, stabilization, and a reduction in crystallite size to the nanorods, which improved their adsorption and photodegradation capacity for the dye. This demonstrates the advantages of using neem leaf extract over commonly used stabilizers in this type of synthesis.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":21926,"journal":{"name":"South African Journal of Chemical Engineering","volume":"52 ","pages":"Pages 189-199"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-02-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143473917","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Preparation and characterization of Palm Kernel Shell (PKS) based biocatalyst for the transformation of kernel oil to biodiesel","authors":"E.O. Babatunde ,&nbsp;S. Enomah ,&nbsp;O.M. Akwenuke ,&nbsp;M.A. Ibeh ,&nbsp;C.O. Okwelum ,&nbsp;M.M. Mundu ,&nbsp;P.O. Adepoju ,&nbsp;A.O. Aki ,&nbsp;O.D. Oghenejabor ,&nbsp;T.F. Adepoju ,&nbsp;C.O. Ifedora ,&nbsp;K. Mabel","doi":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.02.008","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.sajce.2025.02.008","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The proportion of palm oil produced worldwide as of 2023–2024 was 79.46 million metric tons. Specifically, 90 % of the biomass from palm trees is wasted, and only 10 % of the total oil palm products are made from palm kernel oil. The majority of research' conclusions show that PKS has enormous potential as a bio-fuel for the generation of syngas and biodiesel, as well as a bio-adsorbent, abrasive, detoxifying, antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant substance. Thus, in the presence of catalytically calcined kernel shell ash, this study uses bagasse from palm kernels as a bio-adsorbent of palm kernel oil for the production of biofuel. The proportion of palm oil produced worldwide as of 2023–2024 was 79.46 million metric tons. Specifically, 90 % of the biomass from palm trees is wasted, and only 10 % of the total oil palm products are made from palm kernel oil. The majority of research's conclusions show that PKS has enormous potential as a biofuel for the generation of syngas and biodiesel, as well as a bio-adsorbent, abrasive, detoxifying, antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant substance. Thus, in the presence of catalytically calcined kernel shell ash, this study uses bagasse from palm kernels as a bio-adsorbent of palm kernel oil for the production of biofuel.</div><div>Using definite screening design (DSD), the procedure was improved by taking into account four factors: reaction temperature, reaction duration, CSKP concentration, and methanol-oil-molar- ratio (MOH/OMR). These variables give rise to thirteen experimental runs. The ability of kernel shell bagasse to function as a bio-adsorbent for the transformation of high-acidity oil into low-acidity oil was demonstrated by the results. K&gt;Mg&gt;Ca&gt;<em>P</em>&gt;Na&gt;Mn was discovered to be present in the developed CSKP. A biofuel yield of 99.73 % (wt/wt.) at a reaction time of 67.574 min, a reaction temperature of 67.116 min, a CKSP of 3.957 % (wt.), and a MOH/OMR of 1:7.989 in 100 outcomes at 100 % desirability were projected using statistical process optimization. Three experimental runs were used to validate the projected value, and an average value of 99.65 % (wt./wt.) was found. The catalyst can be recycled, and the biofuel grade that was created showed a high potential for energy.</div><div>According to the study's findings, palm kernel fruit wastes have the potential to be used as a raw material to make biodiesel.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":21926,"journal":{"name":"South African Journal of Chemical Engineering","volume":"52 ","pages":"Pages 200-210"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-02-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143509194","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}