Polymers最新文献

{"title":"Scratch Resistance and Tribological Enhancement of Epoxy Composites Reinforced with Chopped Glass Fiber and Nano Silica Through Taguchi Analysis.","authors":"Elanur Ozun, Reyhan Ceylan, Mustafa Özgür Bora, Sinan Fidan, Satılmış Ürgün, Mehmet İskender Özsoy, Erman Güleç","doi":"10.3390/polym17182550","DOIUrl":"10.3390/polym17182550","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This study examines the incorporation of chopped glass fiber and nano-silica into epoxy, focusing on their effects on the tribological and mechanical properties. Three reinforcement ratios (1 wt.%, 3 wt.%, and 5 wt.%) were analyzed by scratch tests and profilometric analysis. The coefficient of friction (COF), scratch depth, and scratch width values of the unreinforced epoxy resin were measured as 0.45, 37.73 µm and 479 µm, respectively. The addition of glass fibers contributed to improved scratch performance by restricting material removal and stabilizing groove morphology, although higher fiber ratios caused an increase in COF. The results indicated that nano-silica increased scratch resistance with a COF of 0.42 at 5 wt.%, giving a scratch depth of 19.92 µm and a scratch width of 166 µm. Glass fiber also improved scratch performance, although there were high COF values for higher ratios, which could be due to the aggregation effect of the fibers. Statistical validation of the results was carried out through the Taguchi method and ANOVA analyses. These analyses showed that reinforcement type and ratio played an important role in scratch behavior. SEM analyses of worn surfaces showed that nano-silica can dissipate stress and minimize plastic deformation to yield improved scratch morphology. Overall, the results emphasize the complementary role of glass fiber and nano-silica reinforcements in improving the scratch resistance of epoxy resin for industrial applications.</p>","PeriodicalId":20416,"journal":{"name":"Polymers","volume":"17 18","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-09-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12473527/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145177579","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effects of Apple Vinegar, Mouthwashes, and Bleaching on Color Stability and Surface Properties of Fiber-Reinforced and Non-Reinforced Restorative Materials.","authors":"Kerem Yılmaz, Tuğçe Odabaş Hajiyev, Gökçe Özcan Altınsoy, Mehmet Mustafa Özarslan","doi":"10.3390/polym17182552","DOIUrl":"10.3390/polym17182552","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of apple cider vinegar (ACV), various mouthwashes and bleaching on the color and surface roughness of fiber strip-reinforced and unreinforced restorative materials. The materials were resin composite (RC), resin-nanoceramic (RNC), and polymer-infiltrated ceramic network (PICN); the mouthwashes were chlorhexidine with alcohol (CXA), chlorhexidine without alcohol (CX), herbal with alcohol (HRA), and herbal without alcohol (HR). Measurements were performed at T0 (baseline), T1 (1 day), T2 (2.5 days) and T3 (after bleaching). Analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Bonferroni analyses revealed that roughness from T0-T3 was highest for RNC and lowest for PICN. Regarding the solutions, the highest increase was in ACV and lowest in artificial saliva (<i>p</i> < 0.001). At T0-T2, color change (ΔE₀₀) and whiteness index change (ΔWI_D) were highest in CXA and lowest in HR. At T2-T3, ΔE₀₀ was highest in ACV, while ΔWI_D was highest in CXA (<i>p</i> < 0.001). Although the roughness exceeded the bacterial adhesion threshold, the effect of bleaching was not considerable. Color and whiteness changes generally did not exceed the acceptability threshold. Fiber strip position did not affect roughness. However, a strip in the middle layer had higher impact on color and whiteness than the one in the top layer.</p>","PeriodicalId":20416,"journal":{"name":"Polymers","volume":"17 18","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-09-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12473981/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145177791","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Interphase-Resolved Performance in PA6/TiO₂ Nanocomposite Fibers: Four-Phase Geometry Linking Structure to Mechanical and UV Protection.","authors":"Hailong Yu, Ping Liu, Xiaohuan Ji, Xiaoze Jiang, Bin Sun","doi":"10.3390/polym17182551","DOIUrl":"10.3390/polym17182551","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Melt-spun PA6/TiO₂ fibers with TiO₂ modified by silane coupling agents KH550 and KH570 at 0, 1.6, and 4 wt% provide a practical testbed to address three fiber-centric gaps: transferable interphase quantification, interphase-resolved indications of compatibility, and a reproducible kinetics-structure-property link. This work proposes, for the first time at fiber scale, a four-phase partition into crystal (c), crystal-adjacent rigid amorphous fraction (RAF-c), interfacial rigid amorphous fraction (RAF-i), and mobile amorphous fraction (MAF), and extracts an interfacial triad consisting of the specific interfacial area (S_v), polymer-only RAF-i fraction expressed per composite volume (Γ_i), and interphase thickness (t_i) from SAXS invariants to establish a quantitative interphase-structure-property framework. A documented SAXS/DSC/WAXS workflow partitions the polymer into the above four components on a polymer-only basis. Upon filling, Γ_i increases while RAF-c decreases, leaving the total RAF approximately conserved. Under identical cooling, DSC shows the crystallization peak temperature is higher by 1.6-4.3 °C and has longer half-times, indicating enhanced heterogeneous nucleation together with growth are increasingly limited by interphase confinement. At 4 wt% loading, KH570-modified fibers versus KH550-modified fibers exhibit higher α-phase orientation (Hermans factor f(α): 0.697 vs. 0.414) but an ~89.4% lower α/γ ratio. At the macroscale, compared to pure (neat) PA6, 4 wt% KH550- and KH570-modified fibers show tenacity enhancements of ~9.5% and ~33.3%, with elongation decreased by ~31-68%. These trends reflect orientation-driven stiffening accompanied by a reduction in the mobile amorphous fraction and stronger interphase constraints on chain mobility. Knitted fabrics achieve a UV protection factor (UPF) of at least 50, whereas pure PA6 fabrics show only ~5.0, corresponding to ≥16-fold improvement. Taken together, the SAXS-derived descriptors (S_v, Γ_i, t_i) provide transferable interphase quantification and, together with WAXS and DSC, yield a reproducible link from interfacial geometry to kinetics, structure, and properties, revealing two limiting regimes-orientation-dominated and phase-fraction-dominated.</p>","PeriodicalId":20416,"journal":{"name":"Polymers","volume":"17 18","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-09-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12473844/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145177817","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Polymer Blend Spiking Method for Quantifying Polypropylene Variants in 100% Polypropylene Blends.","authors":"Meysam Hashemnejad, Ami Doshi","doi":"10.3390/polym17182543","DOIUrl":"10.3390/polym17182543","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Understanding the type of polypropylene (PP) in post-consumer recycled (PCR) PP is valuable for optimizing mechanical recycling approaches, especially when blending with virgin polymers for specific applications. However, accurately identifying and quantifying the various types of polypropylene, including isotactic Homo-PP (Homo-PP), Random-PP, and non-crystalline PP components (such as xylene-soluble atactic PP and amorphous ethylene-propylene copolymers), presents significant challenges when dealing with materials composed entirely of polypropylene. To address this, we propose a solution-based crystallization elution fractionation (CEF) technique to determine the composition of different PP variants in PP blend systems. Our approach involves introducing a controlled amount of linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) into the 100% PP sample in solution, enabling the separation of Homo-PP from Random-PP. By applying established calibration curves, we quantitatively resolve the content of Homo-PP, Random-PP, and non-crystalline PP. The calibration is effective across the full composition window, enabling accurate quantification of Random-PP and Homo-PP from pure (100%) components to mixed systems spanning ~5 wt.% to 95 wt.% Random-PP. This comprehensive analysis offers valuable insights into the distribution of PP variants within the material, facilitating informed decision-making in recycling and material selection processes, ultimately enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of PP recycling operations.</p>","PeriodicalId":20416,"journal":{"name":"Polymers","volume":"17 18","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12473938/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145177954","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Room Temperature Synthesis of a Novel Quinolinoxazine, Polymerization and Flammability Studies.","authors":"Maria Laura Salum, Daniela Iguchi, Carlos Rodriguez Arza, Nora Pellegri, Hatsuo Ishida, Pablo Froimowicz","doi":"10.3390/polym17182546","DOIUrl":"10.3390/polym17182546","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>A novel quinoline-containing benzoxazine resin, <b>8HQ-fa</b>, has been successfully synthesized at room temperature using sustainable raw materials, such as 8-hydroxyquinoline and furfurylamine as the phenol and amine source, respectively. The chemical structure of the hereinafter referred to as quinolinoxazine is fully characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), ¹H and ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), as well as by 2D ¹H-¹H nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy (NOESY) and ¹H-¹³C heteronuclear multiple quantum correlation (HMQC) NMR. Thermal properties and polymerization behavior of the monomer are studied by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). The resulting polymer is also characterized in terms of its thermal and fire-related properties by DSC, TGA, and microscale combustion calorimetry (MCC). The resulting thermoset, <b>poly(8HQ-fa)</b>, presents good thermal stability as evidenced by its <i>T</i>_g (201 °C), <i>T</i>_d5 and <i>T</i>_d10 (307 and 351 °C, respectively), and char yield (42%), and low flammability as determined by the LOI, heat release capacity, and total heat released values (34.3, 143 J/gK, and 10.8 kJ/g, respectively), making it a self-extinguishing thermoset. The combination of properties and advantages in the synthesis of <b>8HQ-fa</b>, accompanied by a low polymerization temperature, suggests its great potential in the field of high-performance polymers.</p>","PeriodicalId":20416,"journal":{"name":"Polymers","volume":"17 18","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12473656/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145177639","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effect of Degradation During Multiple Primary Mechanical Recycling Processes on the Physical Properties and Biodegradation of Commercial PLA-Based Water Bottles.","authors":"Cristina Muñoz-Shugulí, Diana Morán, Eliezer Velásquez, José Manuel López-Vilariño, Carol López-de-Dicastillo","doi":"10.3390/polym17182542","DOIUrl":"10.3390/polym17182542","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>For sustainable development aligned with circular economy principles, the recycling of biopolymers such as polylactic acid (PLA) is of growing interest. In this study, the effect of primary recycling through repeated mechanical reprocessing was investigated. PLA water bottle preforms were subjected to six consecutive extrusion cycles, and changes in its molecular structure and physical properties were evaluated. Structural analysis revealed a progressive degradation, evidenced by a great reduction in the molar mass and increase in the melt flow index, attributed both to the chain scission derived from the thermal degradation and shear stresses of the extrusion process, and hydrolysis at the ester linkage of the polymer. Recycled samples exhibited a darkening of the color and a continuous decrease in thermal stability. After six reprocessing cycles, PLA crystallinity increased from 6.9 to 39.5%, the cold crystallization process disappeared, and molecular weight reduced by up to 40%. Barrier properties were highly affected after reprocessing and by the increase in relative humidity. Biodegradation tests revealed that crystallinity affected considerably the biodegradation rate of PLA. Although the molecular weight was considerably reduced during reprocessing, the biodegradation was slowed down. These findings provide insights into the limitations and potential of mechanically recycled PLA for future material applications.</p>","PeriodicalId":20416,"journal":{"name":"Polymers","volume":"17 18","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12473880/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145177830","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"An Effect of a Matrix Made of Cell Wall Polysaccharides from Apple on the Rheological Properties of Various Food Products.","authors":"Joanna Mierczyńska, Piotr Mariusz Pieczywek, Justyna Cybulska","doi":"10.3390/polym17182547","DOIUrl":"10.3390/polym17182547","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>A texture-modifying food matrix (MPS) was obtained by micronizing apple cell polysaccharides and adding spray-dried low-methoxy pectins. This study aimed to demonstrate the effect of MPS addition on a versatile group of products, including instant soup, salad dressing, buttermilk, tomato juice, apple juice, and instant kissel. The rheological properties of suspensions with two MPS concentrations added to these products were compared with those of the control. Additionally, the water holding and retention capacity, swelling capacity, and wetting angles of the MPS and its components were characterized to determine the technological properties of these products. Results show that the MPS proportionally increases viscosity and the thixotropic effect of all studied products, except buttermilk, in relation to concentration. In particular, very pronounced effects were obtained for apple, tomato juice, and salad dressing. All studied suspensions were classified as pseudoplastic fluids; the addition of MPS resulted in varying changes in pseudoplasticity, depending on the product. In summary, this study showed that MPS, as a natural and rich source of dietary fibre matrix, effectively alters rheological properties and may therefore be considered a substitute for other food additives currently used in the food industry.</p>","PeriodicalId":20416,"journal":{"name":"Polymers","volume":"17 18","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12473252/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145177350","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Integrating Photon-Based Techniques to Probe Structural and Phonon Dynamics in Bacterial Cellulose.","authors":"Levente Csóka, Bunsho Ohtani","doi":"10.3390/polym17182544","DOIUrl":"10.3390/polym17182544","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Bacterial cellulose, a biopolymer synthesised by microorganisms, exhibits remarkable structural, optical, and electronic properties. This study utilised a range of photon- and electron-based techniques, including X-ray diffraction, proton nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H-NMR), photoacoustic spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy, to thoroughly characterise BC. While XRD and NMR directly employ photons to probe the structure and composition, PAS indirectly converts absorbed photons into phonons to evaluate optoelectronic features. SEM revealed a dense nanofibrillar network with fibrils measuring 10-75 nm in diameter. XRD confirmed the crystalline nature of BC, identifying characteristic peaks associated with cellulose Iα. ¹H-NMR relaxation analysis differentiated between the ordered and disordered cellulose regions. PAS determined an optical bandgap of 2.97 eV and identified defect states between 3.6 and 2.9 eV, including a prominent peak at 3.35 eV, likely resulting from oxygen vacancies, hydroxyl modifications, or UV-induced rearrangements. These defects modify BC's electronic structure, suggesting potential for bandgap engineering. The integration of these complementary techniques provides a multidimensional understanding of BC's morphology, crystallinity, and electronic behaviour, underscoring its potential in bioelectronics, advanced composites, and biomedical applications.</p>","PeriodicalId":20416,"journal":{"name":"Polymers","volume":"17 18","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12473660/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145177687","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Catalyst Selection for Body-Temperature Curable Polyurethane Networks from Poly(δ-Decalactone) and Lysine Diisocyanate.","authors":"Marine Boursier, Aurelien Lebrun, Karine Parra, Sylvain Caillol, Claire Negrell, Julien Pinaud","doi":"10.3390/polym17182548","DOIUrl":"10.3390/polym17182548","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>With aging, harsh working conditions or sports injuries, the meniscus can degrade, causing pains to the patient. Nowadays, the treatment consists of the surgical replacement of this cartilage. Since this procedure can lead to complications due to open wounds and potential infections, synthesizing a polyurethane-based injectable joint filler represents an interesting alternative. In this study, poly(δ-decalactone)triol oligomers and Lysine diisocyanate were chosen as starting monomers to create an isocyanate-based prepolymer, because of their biocompatibility and liquid state at room temperature. Nevertheless, to fully replace the meniscus, the joint filler must crosslink in vivo, and this should occur in a short time window. Accordingly, in this work, we studied the catalytic activity of a range of relatively safe compounds for the alcohol/isocyanate addition reaction. A preliminary ¹H NMR kinetic study of the catalyzed addition of 1-butanol or 3-pentanol on lysine diisocyanate ethyl ester at body temperature has been performed to reach this objective. Among catalysts, stannous octoate was the most effective with either primary or secondary alcohol, allowing them to reach 92 and 80% alcohol conversion, respectively. In addition, the conversion of the primary and secondary isocyanates of lysine diisocyanate ethyl ester was monitored for all the catalysts and revealed different behaviors depending on the catalyst employed. Stannous octoate, unlike the others, showed a similar reactivity for primary and secondary isocyanates with conversions of 49 and 47%, respectively. Finally, when employing the most effective catalyst, curing of the poly(δ-decalactone) triisocyanate with glycerol at 35 °C provided a polyurethane elastomer that exhibits an elastic modulus of 519 kPa and a swelling index lower than 3% in PBS, making it suitable for injectable polyurethane joint filler application.</p>","PeriodicalId":20416,"journal":{"name":"Polymers","volume":"17 18","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12473467/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145177677","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Tooth-Whitening Agents and Polymer-Based Carriers: Efficacy, Safety, and Clinical Perspectives.","authors":"Pin-Yu Lin, Li-Nai Chen, Chien-Fu Tseng, Yi-Shao Chen, Hung-Yu Lin, Thi Thuy Tien Vo, Tzu-Yu Peng, I-Ta Lee","doi":"10.3390/polym17182545","DOIUrl":"10.3390/polym17182545","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Tooth whitening is increasingly sought in both clinical and home settings, raising concerns about the efficacy and safety of various whitening agents and their delivery systems. This narrative review compares the whitening performance and biocompatibility of active ingredients, including hydrogen peroxide, carbamide peroxide, activated charcoal, sodium bicarbonate, fluoride compounds, and blue covarine, with particular emphasis on the role of polymer-based carriers in formulation strategies. Hydrogen peroxide and carbamide peroxide remain the most effective agents for intrinsic whitening, but are associated with risks of enamel surface alterations, microhardness reduction, and potential cytotoxicity, particularly at higher concentrations. Sodium bicarbonate provides moderate whitening effects through extrinsic stain removal, while fluoride compounds play a supportive role by reducing demineralization and tooth sensitivity, thereby preserving enamel integrity. These properties make them valuable adjuncts or alternatives for patients with high sensitivity risks. Blue covarine offers immediate optical effects without inducing intrinsic color changes, whereas activated charcoal poses risks of enamel abrasion and surface roughness with limited long-term efficacy. Polymer-based carriers such as Carbopol gels, polyvinylpyrrolidone, and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose are incorporated into whitening formulations to improve viscosity, adhesion, and modulate the release of active ingredients. These polymers might help minimize diffusion of bleaching agents into deeper dental tissues, potentially reducing cytotoxic effects, and may improve handling characteristics. However, dedicated studies evaluating the unique advantages of polymers in different whitening systems remain limited. A comprehensive understanding of both the active ingredients and delivery technologies is critical to balancing esthetic outcomes with long-term oral health. From a clinical perspective, polymer-based carriers might contribute to reducing whitening-related tooth sensitivity, improving patient comfort, and providing more predictable treatment outcomes. Continued research is needed to clarify optimal formulations and application protocols, ensuring safer and more effective tooth-whitening practices in both clinical and home-use scenarios.</p>","PeriodicalId":20416,"journal":{"name":"Polymers","volume":"17 18","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.9,"publicationDate":"2025-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12473685/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145177860","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}