Clinical and Experimental Optometry最新文献

{"title":"Photopsias are associated with greater levels of depression and anxiety.","authors":"Nikolaos Gouliopoulos, Ioannis Roumeliotis, Dimitra Oikonomou, Stylianos Kympouropoulos, Nikolaos-Achilleas Arkoudis, Alexandros Rouvas, Ilias Georgalas, Panagiotis Theodossiadis","doi":"10.1080/08164622.2024.2445069","DOIUrl":"10.1080/08164622.2024.2445069","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Clinical relevance: </strong>Vitreous floaters have been associated with depressive and anxiety symptoms. However, there is a scarcity in the literature regarding the possible impact of vitreous flashes on the psychological status of the patients.</p><p><strong>Background: </strong>Photopsias and vitreous floaters frequently co-exist. Floaters have been accompanied by exacerbated levels of depression and anxiety. The aim of this study was to examine whether the presence of photopsias in patients suffering from vitreous floaters is accompanied by exacerbated levels of anxiety and depression.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>One hundred and four patients complaining of floaters were included in the study; 51 experienced also photopsias and 53 did not. A comprehensive ocular examination, including funduscopy and optical coherence tomography scans was performed to every patient, while their clinical and demographic data were also assessed. Every participant completed the PHQ-9, the Zung SDS, and the HADS anxiety and depression questionnaires.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The clinical and demographic data did not differ significantly between the study groups (<i>p</i> > 0.05).The scores of every questionnaire were significantly higher among the patients with vitreous flashes (<i>p</i> < 0.05 for all). After adjustment for several confounders, the values remained significantly impaired.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Photopsias negatively affect the psychological and mental well-being of the patients, by the terms of amplified levels of depression and anxiety. These findings underscore the necessity for a more holistic approach to managing patients presenting with vitreous flashes.</p>","PeriodicalId":10214,"journal":{"name":"Clinical and Experimental Optometry","volume":" ","pages":"868-872"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142977648","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Refractive and ocular motor status in autistic adults without learning disabilities: an exploratory study.","authors":"Ketan Parmar, Catherine Porter, Christine Dickinson, Peter Baimbridge, Emma Gowen","doi":"10.1080/08164622.2024.2413701","DOIUrl":"10.1080/08164622.2024.2413701","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Clinical relevance: </strong>Refractive and ocular motor anomalies may be more prevalent among autistic adults without learning disabilities, compared to a non-autistic clinical population. In line with current guidance, optometrists should exclude these anomalies prior to prescribing tinted lenses.</p><p><strong>Background: </strong>Autistic adults report various visual experiences with largely negative consequences on daily living. Some of these overlap with symptoms of refractive and ocular motor anomalies. Therefore, this study investigated refractive and ocular motor status, and pattern glare, in autistic adults without learning disabilities. The impact of appropriate treatment on visual experiences was explored.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Twenty four autistic adults, aged 19-67 years, underwent an eye examination involving refraction, ocular motor and pattern glare assessments. Based on pre-determined criteria, anomalies were treated with spectacles, orthoptic exercises, or tinted lenses. Participants completed three questionnaires (Glasgow Sensory Questionnaire, Visual Function Index and Convergence Insufficiency Symptoms Survey) at the start and end of the study to assess the impact of treatment.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Relative to population norms, a notable proportion of participants had: a significant change in refractive correction (83.3%); accommodative infacility (72.7%); convergence insufficiency (37.5%); uncompensated distance dissociated heterophoria (33.3%); significant accommodative inaccuracy (27.2%); and positive pattern glare (25%). All participants required treatment. 16.7% were given orthoptic exercises only. New spectacles were dispensed to 79.2%, followed by 16.7% requiring orthoptic exercises and 4.2% dispensed tinted lenses. Questionnaire scores did not significantly change post-treatment.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>This exploratory study suggests autistic adults may be more likely to present with refractive, ocular motor and pattern glare issues. Impacts on autistic visual sensory experiences, vision-related quality of life and visual function remain unclear. Pattern Glare Test scores of autistic adults appear to be reduced by appropriate refractive and/or ocular motor management. Therefore, optometrists should take a conservative approach, managing refraction and ocular motor status of autistic patients prior to considering tinted lenses.</p>","PeriodicalId":10214,"journal":{"name":"Clinical and Experimental Optometry","volume":" ","pages":"821-829"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142496154","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Prevalence of refractive errors in Vietnamese school children: a meta-analysis.","authors":"Hai-Yen Thi Nguyen, Neema Ghorbani-Mojarrad, Matthew Cufflin, Edward Mallen","doi":"10.1080/08164622.2025.2551751","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/08164622.2025.2551751","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Clinical relevance: </strong>The findings provide greater information on the level of refractive errors in Vietnam, which could assist clinicians and relevant stakeholders to identify high-risk groups and prioritise interventions and preventative measures, contributing to more efficient eye care and cost-effective strategies.</p><p><strong>Background/aims: </strong>Vietnam, a developing country in Southeast Asia, has shown an increase in myopia progression in recent years. However, the prevalence of refractive errors across the country is unclear. The aim of this study was to estimate the pooled prevalence of different refractions in children across Vietnam, and to explore differences between rural and urban areas, and male and female children.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>A systematic literature search was performed to capture all studies up to April 2024, using online databases including Medline, Web of Science, Scopus, and CINAHL. This was carried out independently by two researchers, following the 2020 Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (PROSPERO ID: CRD42024524780). The quality assessment of included studies was conducted using the Joanna Briggs Institute Prevalence Critical Appraisal Tool checklist. Meta-analysis was performed to estimate pooled refractive error prevalence, with robustness evaluated using 95% confidence intervals and sensitivity analyses.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>15 school-based studies were identified (children <i>n</i> = 32,211), of which 6 qualified for meta-analysis inclusion (<i>n</i> = 15,825). The pooled refractive error, myopia, and hyperopia prevalences were calculated respectively as 37.60% [95%CI: 27.78-47.43], 28.83% [95%CI: 19.24-38.42], and 0.41% [95%CI: 0.24-0.59] with high heterogeneities of 99%, p<0.01. Refractive error prevalence was greater in urban locations, and female children.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>This systematic review and meta-analysis of refractive error prevalence in Vietnamese school children indicates a significant presence of refractive error, especially myopia. However, the large interval ranges suggest that further research using a standardised protocol is required to achieve more accurate estimates.</p>","PeriodicalId":10214,"journal":{"name":"Clinical and Experimental Optometry","volume":" ","pages":"1-14"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144945005","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Short-term changes in the trabecular iris angle and anterior chamber during wear of scleral lenses with different diameters.","authors":"Juan Queiruga-Piñeiro, Javier Lozano-Sanroma, Alberto Barros, Ignacio Rodríguez-Uña, Luis Fernández-Vega Cueto-Felgueroso, Jesús Merayo-Lloves","doi":"10.1080/08164622.2024.2418822","DOIUrl":"10.1080/08164622.2024.2418822","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Clinical relevance: </strong>Scleral lens (SL) compression on the conjunctiva/episclera during wear may alter adjacent structures related to aqueous humour drainage.</p><p><strong>Background: </strong>The aim of this work was to assess short-term changes in the four quadrants of trabecular iris angle (TIA) and anterior chamber parameters during SL wear, using anterior segment optical coherence tomography (AS-OCT).</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Prospective study was conducted involving 16 healthy subjects with a mean age of 28 ± 5 years. Two SL of diameter 15.80 mm (L1) and 16.80 mm (L2) with the same parameters were used for 2 hours in different days. The central fluid reservoir (FR), the TIA in superior, inferior, nasal, temporal quadrants, and anterior chamber parameters; anterior chamber depth (ACD), anterior chamber width (ACW), anterior chamber area (ACAr) and anterior chamber volume (ACV) were measured with AS-OCT. These measurements were performed immediately after SL application (0 h), one hour (1 h) and two hours (2 h) of SL wear.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>TIA decreases significantly in the superior quadrant at 2 hours of L2 wear (-5.19 ± 7.79º) (<i>p</i> = 0.04). In this sector, differences were also observed between the changes induced by both lenses during the 2 hours of wear (<i>p</i> = 0.04) and between first and second hours of wear (<i>p</i> = 0.04). ACD was significantly lower with L1 (-0.09 ± 0.14 mm) relative to L2 (0.00 ± 0.06 mm) between immediately after the application and 2 hours of wear (<i>p</i> = 0.02). A significant reduction in ACAr at 1 hour (-0.65 ± 0.75 mm²) (<i>p</i> = 0.01) and 2 hours of wear (-0.81 ± 1.15 mm²) (<i>p</i> = 0.04), as well as in ACW at 2 hours (-0.11 ± 0.14 mm) (<i>p</i> = 0.02) compared to immediately after application of L1 was found.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Small changes in TIA and anterior chamber occur during two hours of SL wear, but these changes are of limited clinical relevance in healthy subjects.</p>","PeriodicalId":10214,"journal":{"name":"Clinical and Experimental Optometry","volume":" ","pages":"800-806"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142496155","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Metabolic dysregulation in glaucoma.","authors":"Xirui Yang, Songwei Li, Hao Guo, Siqi Wang, Huilan Sun, Jixue Wang, Xingxing Yuan","doi":"10.1080/08164622.2025.2463502","DOIUrl":"10.1080/08164622.2025.2463502","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Glaucoma is a multifactorial neurodegenerative disorder characterised by the progressive loss of retinal ganglion cells, ultimately leading to irreversible blindness worldwide. Recent research highlights metabolic dysregulation as a crucial factor in the pathophysiology of glaucoma. This review examines the intricate relationship between metabolic processes and glaucoma, with a focus on key mechanisms such as mitochondrial dysfunction, lipid metabolism, glucose metabolism, and the roles of specific metabolites. Mitochondrial dysfunction is commonly observed in glaucoma, leading to impaired energy production that compromises cellular viability. Alterations in lipid metabolism, including changes in fatty acid profiles and lipid peroxidation, contribute to cellular injury and apoptosis of retinal ganglion cells. Moreover, disturbances in glucose metabolism, such as reduced glycolytic activity, affect energy availability and neurotrophic support that are vital for retinal ganglion cells survival. The review also explores the roles of specific metabolites, including lactate and glutamate, in the context of retinal ganglion cells health, and how their dysregulation may exacerbate glaucomatous damage. Additionally, the interplay between metabolic dysregulation and elevated intraocular pressure is analysed, particularly with regard to its impact on ocular blood flow and retinal health. Understanding these metabolic mechanisms is essential for identifying potential therapeutic strategies. By deepening our understanding of the metabolic foundations of glaucoma, new avenues for effective treatments may arise, addressing the multifactorial nature of this complex disease and improving patient outcomes.</p>","PeriodicalId":10214,"journal":{"name":"Clinical and Experimental Optometry","volume":" ","pages":"771-777"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143406066","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Optic nerve assessment with stereo photographs and ultra-widefield scanning laser ophthalmoscope images.","authors":"Patricia Salazar, Ashley Speilburg, Anne Rozwat, Michael Chaglasian, Daniel Roberts, Christina Morettin, Janice McMahon, Michael Sinai","doi":"10.1080/08164622.2024.2438132","DOIUrl":"10.1080/08164622.2024.2438132","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Clinical relevance: </strong>Clinical evaluation of the optic nerve using 3-D stereo disc photographs is considered the gold standard for estimating vertical cup-to-disc ratios. Ultra-widefield retinal imaging has gained increasing popularity to document and screen the health of the retina and optic nerve.</p><p><strong>Background: </strong>Glaucoma is often first identified or suspected based on initial optic nerve assessment. Despite technological advancements in imaging, stereo disc photography remains the gold standard of optic nerve assessment. This study compared vertical cup-to-disc ratio (VCDR) estimations using ultra-widefield scanning laser ophthalmoscopy images with estimations using paired stereo disc images.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Thirty-five healthy and 35 glaucomatous eyes were imaged using Zeiss VISUCAM® PRO NM and Optos Monaco® (optomap®) [Registered in U.S. Patent and Trademark Office] devices. Four experienced clinicians assessed each image in a masked fashion and graded the VCDR. Stereo viewers and review software tools were used to determine VCDRs. Bland-Altman plots and regression/correlation analyses were used to check VCDR agreement.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Bland-Altman analyses showed low mean differences between devices with VCDR estimation for each grader (-0.03, +0.01, -0.02, and +0.03). Difference vs. means plots suggest stable differences across the range of measurement.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>VCDR estimations were comparable using optomap® images and VISUCAM® PRO NM stereo optic disc images.</p>","PeriodicalId":10214,"journal":{"name":"Clinical and Experimental Optometry","volume":" ","pages":"850-854"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2025-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142853196","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Most read articles in <i>Clinical and Experimental Optometry</i>.","authors":"Nathan Efron","doi":"10.1080/08164622.2025.2552917","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/08164622.2025.2552917","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":10214,"journal":{"name":"Clinical and Experimental Optometry","volume":" ","pages":"1-4"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2025-08-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144944986","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Modelling systematic evaluation of technology enhanced learning in optometric education in Australia and New Zealand.","authors":"Alexandra Jaworski, Amanda G Douglass, Anthea Cochrane, Bao N Nguyen, Kwang Meng Cham","doi":"10.1080/08164622.2025.2543509","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/08164622.2025.2543509","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Technology enhanced learning (TEL) refers to any digital technology that improves the educational experience of learners. Optometry schools have adopted a range of TEL as part of their contemporary curricula. Comprehensive frameworks exist to enable TEL interventions to be evaluated across studies and institutions, but have not consistently been applied in optometry education. Thus, this review systematically collated and evaluated the range of published TEL in optometric teaching across Australia and New Zealand against two established frameworks: the Cook and Ellaway TEL-specific evaluation framework and the more general Kirkpatrick model of training evaluation. Of the 17 papers included, each paper met at least four of the seven evaluation activities of the Cook and Ellaway TEL evaluation framework, including reporting a needs analysis and describing the implementation of the TEL approach. Nearly all studies evaluated the participant experience, and none met all seven criteria. Areas lacking consistency of reporting were consideration of learning outcomes, sustainability and/or cost, and usability. Of the four Kirkpatrick training evaluation levels, most studies demonstrated evidence for levels 1 (reaction), 2 (learning) and/or 3 (behaviour) but none addressed level 4 (results). Future TEL publications in optometric education could consider how well their approach aligns with evaluation frameworks, such as the Cook and Ellaway and Kirkpatrick frameworks as modelled here, for wider application and adoption. Educators could consider greater stakeholder engagement for inclusive practice, other than the immediate perceptions of participants, for a more comprehensive evaluation. This will ensure that TEL innovations are sustainable and transferable across optometry education programmes.</p>","PeriodicalId":10214,"journal":{"name":"Clinical and Experimental Optometry","volume":" ","pages":"1-16"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2025-08-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144945015","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Workforce retention and attrition trends among optometrists in Australia: key factors and reasons.","authors":"Rechu Divakar, Sharon A Bentley, Terence Wong, Jade Tan, Lee Barclay, Lynda Pham, Eva Saar","doi":"10.1080/08164622.2025.2550737","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/08164622.2025.2550737","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Clinical relevance: </strong>Understanding workforce retention and attrition trends is needed to inform interventions that mitigate attrition and for planning.</p><p><strong>Background: </strong>Retention and attrition are underexplored in optometry. The aim of this study was to identify factors and reasons underpinning decisions made by optometrists to remain in or leave the profession.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>An online survey of optometrists registered with the Australian Health Practitioner Regulation Agency (AHPRA) as of 31 December 2023 and those who had not renewed in the preceding five years was conducted. In addition, a retrospective analysis of AHPRA registration data from 30 June 2014 to 30 June 2023 was undertaken.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Out of 7,718 invited, 1,741 optometrists completed the survey (23% response rate). 79% indicated they intended to continue in the profession, 13% indicated they either intended to leave or were uncertain and the remainder were retired. Optometrists with non-practising registration had higher odds of intending to leave or feeling uncertain (OR = 17.65, 95% CI = [9.51, 32.78]), as did those aged over 60 years (OR = 3.13, 95% CI = [1.85, 5.28]). Reasons for intending to leave were: retirement; the work no longer being mentally stimulating, fulfilling or meaningful; unsatisfactory remuneration; and lack of career advancement opportunities. Registration data showed a 22.8% increase in the number of optometrists per 100,000 population, from 19.7 to 24.2. Replacement rate peaked in 2020, before a large decline in 2022 attributable to an increase in the over 60 years and the 35-60 years age groups leaving the profession.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>Although there has been considerable growth in the number of optometrists per population over the past decade, the replacement rate has declined recently due to an increase in optometrists leaving the profession. Strategies to mitigate attrition may include attractive remuneration, flexible work arrangements and a varied workload that offers professional stimulation. Attrition and the reasons for it require ongoing monitoring.</p>","PeriodicalId":10214,"journal":{"name":"Clinical and Experimental Optometry","volume":" ","pages":"1-12"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2025-08-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144945075","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The Bradford Visual Function Box can predict visual acuity in children who are hard to test.","authors":"Amar Shah, Rachel F Pilling, J Margaret Woodhouse","doi":"10.1080/08164622.2025.2551749","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1080/08164622.2025.2551749","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Clinical relevance: </strong>Children with special educational needs can find it difficult to engage with traditional visual acuity testing methods; nonetheless, estimates of visual function are key to understanding how a child uses their vision for learning. Appreciating how functional vision testing relates to clinical scores is essential.</p><p><strong>Background: </strong>The Bradford Visual Function Box (BVFB) has been shown to be useful in estimating visual function in children who cannot participate in standard acuity tests. How outcomes of the BVFB relate to clinical acuity scores has yet to be determined.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Retrospective clinical data of 79 children attending special schools were analysed, with particular attention to repeated visits over 7 years. At each visit, vision was awarded one of four classifications: normal, low vision, sight-impaired, and severely sight-impaired.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Overall, 31 children were assessed with the BVFB on at least one occasion, of whom 16 went on to participate in a conventional test on a later occasion. Nine children achieved the same classification with a conventional test as with the BVFB, four were under-estimated by BVFB and three were over-estimated.</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>The BVFB is a useful tool to predict future visual potential of a child who has yet to develop skills to engage with formal acuity testing. Formal visual acuity testing should be pursued as the child develops as over time, as most children were able to engage with more complex testing regimes.</p>","PeriodicalId":10214,"journal":{"name":"Clinical and Experimental Optometry","volume":" ","pages":"1-6"},"PeriodicalIF":1.5,"publicationDate":"2025-08-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144945042","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}