Brain Sciences最新文献

{"title":"Genetic Loss of VGLUT1 Alters Histogenesis of Retinal Glutamatergic Cells and Reveals Dynamic Expression of VGLUT2 in Cones.","authors":"Sriparna Majumdar, Vincent Wu","doi":"10.3390/brainsci15091024","DOIUrl":"10.3390/brainsci15091024","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><b>Background/Objectives</b>: Glutamatergic neurotransmission is essential for the normal functioning of the retina. Photoreceptor to bipolar and bipolar to ganglion cell signaling is mediated by L-glutamate, which is stored in and released from vesicular glutamate transporter 1 (VGLUT1) containing synaptic vesicles. VGLUT1 is expressed postnatally, P2 onwards, and is required for the glutamatergic retinal wave observed between P10 and P12 in the developing mouse retina. P9-P13 postnatal age is critical for retinal development as VGLUT1 expressing ribbon synapses activate in the outer and inner plexiform layers, and rod/cone mediated visual signaling commences in that period. Although it has been hypothesized that glutamatergic extrinsic signaling drives cell cycle exit and initiates cellular differentiation in the developing retina, it is not clear whether intracellular, synaptic, or extrasynaptic vesicular glutamate release contributes to this process. Recent studies have attempted to decipher VGLUT's role in retinal development. Here, we investigate the potential effect of genetic loss of VGLUT1 on early postnatal histogenesis and development of retinal neural circuitry. <b>Methods</b>: We employed immunohistochemistry and electrophysiology to ascertain the density of glutamatergic, cholinergic, and dopaminergic cells, spontaneous retinal activity, and light responses in VGLUT1 null retina, and contrasted them with wildtype (WT) and melanopsin null retina. <b>Results</b>: We have demonstrated here that VGLUT1 null retina shows signs of age dependent retinal degeneration, similar to other transgenic mice models with dysfunctional photoreceptor to bipolar cell synapses. The loss of VGLUT1 specifically alters glutamatergic cell density and morphological maturation of retinal ganglion cells. Moreover, VGLUT2 expression is lost in the majority of VGLUT2 cones in the absence of VGLUT1 coexpression, except when VGLUT2 coexpresses transiently with VGLUT3 in these cones, or when VGLUT1 null mice are dark reared. <b>Conclusions</b>: We present the first evidence that synaptic or extrasynaptic postnatal glutamate release from VGLUT1 containing vesicles impacts histogenesis of glutamatergic cells, pruning of retinal ganglion cell dendrites and VGLUT2 expression in cones.</p>","PeriodicalId":9095,"journal":{"name":"Brain Sciences","volume":"15 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12468242/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145173770","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Idea Density and Grammatical Complexity as Neurocognitive Markers.","authors":"Diego Iacono, Gloria C Feltis","doi":"10.3390/brainsci15091022","DOIUrl":"10.3390/brainsci15091022","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Language, a uniquely human cognitive faculty, is fundamentally characterized by its capacity for complex thoughts and structured expressions. This review examines two critical measures of linguistic performance: <i>idea density</i> (ID) and <i>grammatical complexity</i> (GC). ID quantifies the richness of information conveyed per unit of language, reflecting semantic efficiency and conceptual processing. GC, conversely, measures the structural sophistication of syntax, indicative of hierarchical organization and rule-based operations. We explore the neurobiological underpinnings of these measures, identifying key brain regions and white matter pathways involved in their generation and comprehension. This includes linking ID to a distributed network of semantic hubs, like the anterior temporal lobe and temporoparietal junction, and GC to a fronto-striatal procedural network encompassing Broca's area and the basal ganglia. Moreover, a central theme is the integration of Chomsky's theories of Universal Grammar (UG), which posits an innate human linguistic endowment, with their neurobiological correlates. This integration analysis bridges foundational models that first mapped syntax (Friederici's work) to distinct neural pathways with contemporary network-based theories that view grammar as an emergent property of dynamic, inter-regional neural oscillations. Furthermore, we examine the genetic factors influencing ID and GC, including genes implicated in neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders. A comparative anatomical perspective across human and non-human primates illuminates the evolutionary trajectory of the language-ready brain. Also, we emphasize that, clinically, ID and GC serve as sensitive neurocognitive markers whose power lies in their often-dissociable profiles. For instance, the primary decline of ID in Alzheimer's disease contrasts with the severe grammatical impairment in nonfluent aphasia, aiding in differential diagnosis. Importantly, as non-invasive and scalable metrics, ID and GC also provide a critical complement to gold-standard but costly biomarkers like CSF and PET. Finally, the review considers the emerging role of AI and Natural Language Processing (NLP) in automating these linguistic analyses, concluding with a necessary discussion of the critical challenges in validation, ethics, and implementation that must be addressed for these technologies to be responsibly integrated into clinical practice.</p>","PeriodicalId":9095,"journal":{"name":"Brain Sciences","volume":"15 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12468128/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145173163","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Lumped Parameter Modelling Study of Leukoaraiosis Suggests Its Vascular Pathophysiology May Be Similar to Normal-Pressure Hydrocephalus.","authors":"Grant A Bateman, Alexander R Bateman","doi":"10.3390/brainsci15091023","DOIUrl":"10.3390/brainsci15091023","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Introduction: </strong>Leukoaraiosis (LA) or white matter disease is a significant component of vascular dementia. There is a large overlap noted between normal-pressure hydrocephalus (NPH) and LA. A previously reported lumped parameter modelling study of NPH led to novel findings in this disease. Given the overlap between LA and NPH, the purpose of the current study is to perform a lumped parameter study into LA to see if the vascular pathophysiology is similar to NPH.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>A lumped parameter model originally developed to study normal-pressure hydrocephalus was extended to investigate LA. The model was constrained by the known cerebral blood flow and cerebral blood volumes found in LA, as derived from the literature.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Similar to NPH, in LA, the model predicted a balanced increase in arterial and venous outflow resistance, with the resulting ischemia affecting the white matter rather than the grey matter. However, unlike NPH, in LA, the findings are irreversible, most likely due to structural venous wall changes.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The model suggests that the vascular physiology of LA maybe similar to NPH. A common pathophysiology is discussed based on a pulsation-induced increase in the venous outflow resistance.</p>","PeriodicalId":9095,"journal":{"name":"Brain Sciences","volume":"15 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12469235/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145173436","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Navigating a Misty Road: Novel Ways to Study the Impact of Cognition on Driving Performance in Multiple Sclerosis.","authors":"Ioannis Nikolakakis, Panagiotis Grigoriadis, Nefeli Dimitriou, Dimitrios Parisis, Grigorios Nasios, Lambros Messinis, Christos Bakirtzis","doi":"10.3390/brainsci15091017","DOIUrl":"10.3390/brainsci15091017","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><b>Background/Objectives</b>: The ability to drive is closely linked to participation in daily activities and quality of life in people living with neurological disorders. Cognitive deficits in people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) are known to hinder this ability, yet concrete fitness-to-drive criteria remain elusive and assessment guidelines lack uniformity. A plethora of cognitive tests have provided associations with various aspects of driving performance and on-road behavior; however, several studies reveal limitations and inconsistencies in most tests' sensitivity and predictive effect. Novel and resurfaced modalities for cognitive assessment, in the form of advanced imaging techniques and electrophysiological studies, may offer improved sensitivity in driving-related abilities in earlier and milder stages. Their application in addition to evaluations in driving simulators may aid future research and enhance the quality of evidence to inform decision-making. <b>Methods</b>: We searched for the relevant literature in the PubMed database and synthesized the available findings for the applications of currently clinically used cognitive tests, markers derived from functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and diffuse tensor imaging (DTI), as well as event-related potentials (ERP). <b>Results</b>: Advanced imaging modalities and ERP studies may better capture neurobiological changes that lead to driving impairment in pwMS, and they may also be applied to detect cognitive alterations earlier and with greater precision, helping to predict driving difficulties in this population. <b>Conclusions</b>: Novel tools and driving simulator settings could improve our understanding of the relation between cognition and driving in pwMS, enhance protocol homogeneity in driving studies, and aid in the formation of guidelines. The evidence in this review supports an increase in their application in future studies.</p>","PeriodicalId":9095,"journal":{"name":"Brain Sciences","volume":"15 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12469141/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145173642","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Nyctalopia Due to Vitamin A Deficiency Secondary to Short Bowel Syndrome: When the Electroretinogram Is the Diagnostic Key.","authors":"Moisés León-Ruiz, Julián Benito-León, Carlos Castañeda-Cabrero","doi":"10.3390/brainsci15091019","DOIUrl":"10.3390/brainsci15091019","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><b>Background:</b> Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) can occur due to malnutrition or reduced intestinal absorption, such as in short bowel syndrome (SBS). The main causes of SBS in adults include post-radiotherapy and surgery (e.g., repeated bowel resections). VAD mostly involves rods producing nyctalopia and reduced amplitudes of the electroretinogram (ERG) in scotopic conditions, with a characteristic negative ERG pattern (b/a < 1). <b>Case Report:</b> We report a 67-year-old woman with a history of gastric adenocarcinoma and several surgeries, who developed a progressive 3-month clinical picture of night blindness. <b>Results</b>: Urgent blood tests, biomicroscopy, intraocular pressure measurements, fundoscopy, and a cranial MRI were all normal. Visual evoked potentials showed increased latencies in both eyes, and full-field ERG showed a significant alteration in responses under scotopic conditions, and, to a lesser extent, under photopic conditions. Laboratory tests confirmed VAD, probably due to post-surgery and radiotherapy SBS. After parenteral vitamin replacement, VAD was clinically, analytically, and electroretinographically resolved. <b>Discussion:</b> VAD diagnosis is based on history, neuro-ophthalmological examination, and serum levels of retinol (<0.3 µg/mL) and/or retinol/retinol-binding protein (<0.8). In cases of a history of SBS, acquired nyctalopia, negative ERG, and clinical, analytical, and electroretinographic improvement with restoration of vitamin A levels, VAD should be suspected. ERG is crucial for early and appropriate management. <b>Conclusions:</b> As far as we know, this is the first reported VAD case secondary to SBS following surgical resections and radiotherapy of gastric adenocarcinoma with neuro-ophthalmological, laboratory, and electroretinographic monitoring of VAD recovery.</p>","PeriodicalId":9095,"journal":{"name":"Brain Sciences","volume":"15 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12468725/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145173753","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A BIO-EEG Hyperscanning Study of Moral Dyadic Negotiation.","authors":"Angelica Daffinà, Laura Angioletti, Michela Balconi","doi":"10.3390/brainsci15091015","DOIUrl":"10.3390/brainsci15091015","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background/objectives: </strong>Recent social neuroscience research has increasingly shifted from individual moral decision-making to the study of how people negotiate moral dilemmas in interpersonal contexts. This multimethod hyperscanning study investigated whether initial differences in moral decision-making orientation within a dyad influence neural and autonomic synchronization during a joint moral negotiation.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Fourteen dyads were classified as homologous or heterologous based on the similarity or dissimilarity of their individual decision-making orientations. Each dyad was asked to negotiate and reach a shared decision on a moral dilemma involving a realistic health emergency scenario. Electroencephalography (EEG) and autonomic signals were recorded simultaneously. Dissimilarity indices were computed to assess inter-brain and autonomic synchronization.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>EEG analyses revealed a significant effect only in the delta frequency band: all dyads, regardless of orientation, showed greater dissimilarity in the left frontal region compared to the left temporo-central and right parieto-occipital regions. In addition, autonomic data indicated greater heart rate variability (HRV) dissimilarity in homologous dyads than in heterologous ones. However, these results did not confirm our initial hypotheses, indicating the opposite pattern.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Left frontal delta dissimilarity emerged as an exploratory candidate marker of moral negotiation across dyads. Greater HRV dissimilarity in homologous dyads suggests that, in these dyads, successful negotiation may be supported by complementary rather than synchronized autonomic responses. This multimethod hyperscanning approach highlights the complex and partially dissociable contributions of neural and autonomic processes to the regulation of shared moral decision-making.</p>","PeriodicalId":9095,"journal":{"name":"Brain Sciences","volume":"15 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12468756/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145173282","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Potential Predictors of Mortality in Adults with Severe Traumatic Brain Injury.","authors":"Rachel Marta, Yaroslavska Svitlana, Kreniov Konstiantyn, Mamonowa Maryna, Dobrorodniy Andriy, Oliynyk Oleksandr","doi":"10.3390/brainsci15091014","DOIUrl":"10.3390/brainsci15091014","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Severe traumatic brain injury (sTBI) in adults remains a leading cause of mortality and disability worldwide. Early identification of reliable predictors of outcome is crucial for risk stratification and ICU management. Disturbances of hemostasis and metabolic factors such as body mass index (BMI) have been proposed as potential prognostic markers, but evidence remains limited.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>We conducted a retrospective, multicenter study including 307 adult patients with sTBI (Glasgow Coma Scale ≤ 8) admitted to three tertiary intensive care units in Ukraine between September 2023 and July 2024. All patients underwent surgical evacuation of hematomas and decompressive craniotomy. Laboratory parameters (APTT, INR, fibrinogen, platelets, D-dimer) were collected within 12 h of admission. BMI was calculated from measured height and weight. Predictive modeling was performed using L1-regularized logistic regression and Random Forest algorithms. Class imbalance was addressed with SMOTE. Model performance was assessed by AUC, accuracy, calibration, and feature importance.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The 28-day all-cause mortality was 32.9%. Compared with survivors, non-survivors had significantly lower GCS scores and higher INR, D-dimer, and APTT values. Very high VIF values indicated severe multicollinearity between predictors. Classical logistic regression was not estimable due to perfect separation; therefore, regularized logistic regression and Random Forest were applied. Random Forest demonstrated higher performance (AUC 0.95, accuracy ≈ 90%) than logistic regression (AUC 0.77, accuracy 70.1%), although results must be interpreted cautiously given the small sample size and potential overfitting. Feature importance analysis identified increased BMI, prolonged APTT, and elevated D-dimer as leading predictors of mortality. Sensitivity analysis excluding BMI still yielded strong performance (AUC 0.91), confirming the prognostic value of coagulation markers and GCS.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Mortality in adult sTBI patients was strongly associated with impaired hemostasis, obesity, and low neurological status at admission. Machine learning-based modeling demonstrated promising predictive accuracy but is exploratory in nature. Findings should be interpreted with caution due to retrospective design, severe multicollinearity, potential overfitting, and absence of external validation. Larger, prospective, multicenter studies are needed to confirm these results and improve early risk stratification in severe TBI.</p>","PeriodicalId":9095,"journal":{"name":"Brain Sciences","volume":"15 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12468983/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145173690","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exploring Imagined Movement for Brain-Computer Interface Control: An fNIRS and EEG Review.","authors":"Robert Finnis, Adeel Mehmood, Henning Holle, Jamshed Iqbal","doi":"10.3390/brainsci15091013","DOIUrl":"10.3390/brainsci15091013","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Brain-Computer Interfaces (BCIs) offer a non-invasive pathway for restoring motor function, particularly for individuals with limb loss. This review explored the effectiveness of Electroencephalography (EEG) and function Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) in decoding Motor Imagery (MI) movements for both offline and online BCI systems. EEG has been the dominant non-invasive neuroimaging modality due to its high temporal resolution and accessibility; however, it is limited by high susceptibility to electrical noise and motion artifacts, particularly in real-world settings. fNIRS offers improved robustness to electrical and motion noise, making it increasingly viable in prosthetic control tasks; however, it has an inherent physiological delay. The review categorizes experimental approaches based on modality, paradigm, and study type, highlighting the methods used for signal acquisition, feature extraction, and classification. Results show that while offline studies achieve higher classification accuracy due to fewer time constraints and richer data processing, recent advancements in machine learning-particularly deep learning-have improved the feasibility of online MI decoding. Hybrid EEG-fNIRS systems further enhance performance by combining the temporal precision of EEG with the spatial specificity of fNIRS. Overall, the review finds that predicting online imagined movement is feasible, though still less reliable than motor execution, and continued improvements in neuroimaging integration and classification methods are essential for real-world BCI applications. Broader dissemination of recent advancements in MI-based BCI research is expected to stimulate further interdisciplinary collaboration among roboticists, neuroscientists, and clinicians, accelerating progress toward practical and transformative neuroprosthetic technologies.</p>","PeriodicalId":9095,"journal":{"name":"Brain Sciences","volume":"15 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12468679/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145173755","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Heatstroke Is Associated with an Increased Risk of Chronic Headache: A Retrospective Cohort Study.","authors":"Karel Kostev, Ira Rodemer, Marcel Konrad, Jens Bohlken","doi":"10.3390/brainsci15091011","DOIUrl":"10.3390/brainsci15091011","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Heatstroke is the most severe form of heat-related illness. It is characterized by an elevated core body temperature and central nervous system dysfunction. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between heatstroke and subsequent migraine development.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>This retrospective cohort study used data from the Disease Analyzer database (IQVIA) and included individuals diagnosed with heatstroke, as well as propensity score-matched individuals without heatstroke. Data about these individuals was recorded in 1216 general practices in Germany between January 2005 and December 2023. Five-year cumulative migraine incidence was assessed using Kaplan-Meiercurves, and univariable Cox regression analysis was performed to evaluate the association between heatstroke and migraine.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>The study included 5794 individuals with heatstroke and 28,970 matched controls without heatstroke (median age: 30 years, 31-32% female). Most heatstroke cases were documented in June (32-34%), followed by July (30%), August (15-17%), and May (13%). Within five years of follow-up, 8.8% of patients with heatstroke and 4.0% of controls were diagnosed with migraine. The regression analysis revealed that heatstroke was significantly associated with an increased risk of migraine in the total population (HR: 2.26; 95% CI: 2.00-2.57), as well as in women (HR: 2.33; 95% CI: 1.96-2.79) and men (HR: 2.26; 95% CI: 1.89-2.70).</p><p><strong>Conclusion: </strong>This study highlights an important, yet previously underrecognized, association between heatstroke and an increased risk of migraine. As global temperatures continue to rise, public health strategies should focus not only on the acute prevention and management of heat-related illnesses, but also on their potential long-term neurological consequences.</p>","PeriodicalId":9095,"journal":{"name":"Brain Sciences","volume":"15 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12468329/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145173839","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Autism Spectrum Disorder: What Do We Know and Where Do We Go?","authors":"Gerry Leisman, Robert Melillo","doi":"10.3390/brainsci15091010","DOIUrl":"10.3390/brainsci15091010","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a complex neurodevelopmental condition that manifests in early childhood and persists throughout an individual's life. Characterized by a range of symptoms affecting social interaction, communication, and behavior, ASD presents a spectrum of varying degrees of severity and presentation. Recent research emphasizes the importance of understanding the diverse manifestations of ASD across different populations. Core features include social communication differences and restricted and repetitive behaviors (RRBs), often linked to co-occurring conditions such as anxiety and ADHD. The study of ASD has evolved significantly, highlighting the need for individualized approaches to diagnosis and intervention. This paper explores current knowledge on ASD, examining the latest research findings and discussing future directions for improving the lives of those affected by the disorder. The purpose is to present a map of the field and an evidence-strength framing of what is known and unknown, and where the evidence is equivocal. Key areas of focus include behavioral, psychological, genetic, metabolic, immunological, and neurological features, as well as developmental and maturational factors. The aim is to provide a comprehensive overview of what is known, what remains unclear, and where future research should be directed.</p>","PeriodicalId":9095,"journal":{"name":"Brain Sciences","volume":"15 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.8,"publicationDate":"2025-09-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12468522/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145173578","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}