Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology最新文献

{"title":"Time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry imaging of contaminant species in chemical vapour deposited graphene on copper.","authors":"Barry Brennan, Vlad-Petru Veigang-Radulescu, Philipp Braeuninger-Weimer, Stephan Hofmann, Andrew J Pollard","doi":"10.3762/bjnano.17.13","DOIUrl":"10.3762/bjnano.17.13","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Time of flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS) was used to probe the chemistry of graphene grown on copper foil substrates by chemical vapour deposition (CVD) under various growth conditions. The surface sensitivity, mass resolving power, and imaging capability of ToF-SIMS allow us to explore variations in the chemical species present on the graphene surface, as well as in three dimensions under the graphene. In this way, we can observe the impact that variations in the chemical composition of the copper foil have on the growth of the graphene; in particular, the accumulation of contaminations present in the copper foil, which has implications for the potential electrical properties of the graphene. We also observe variations in the permeation of oxygen underneath the graphene layers, resulting in oxidation of the copper substrate, depending on processing conditions employed and the chemical species present on the surface. This has implications for the gas permeation barrier properties of this material, graphene transfer mechanisms, as well as the effectiveness of using the oxidation of the copper foil as a rapid graphene quality control method. These results highlight the significance of understanding the role of trace contaminants and elemental distributions within the catalyst in conjunction with growth parameters for optimised CVD of graphene layers.</p>","PeriodicalId":8802,"journal":{"name":"Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology","volume":"17 ","pages":"200-213"},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2026-01-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12834054/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146059145","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Structure-dependent thermochromism of PAZO thin films: theory and experiment.","authors":"Georgi Mateev, Dean Dimov, Nataliya Berberova-Buhova, Nikoleta Kircheva, Todor Dudev, Ludmila Nikolova, Elena Stoykova, Keehoon Hong, Dimana Nazarova, Silvia Angelova, Lian Nedelchev","doi":"10.3762/bjnano.17.12","DOIUrl":"10.3762/bjnano.17.12","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Poly[1-[4-(3-carboxy-4-hydroxyphenylazo)benzenesulfonamido]-1,2-ethanediyl, sodium salt] (PAZO) exhibits a range of unique physical properties that are critical for its diverse applications in photonics, optoelectronics, memory devices, and sensing technologies. In this study, we investigate the thermochromic behavior of PAZO thin films, focusing on the relationship between the structural organization of the polymer side chains and temperature-induced optical changes. By combining experimental spectroscopic techniques with theoretical modeling, we demonstrate that the thermochromic response of PAZO films is strongly influenced by molecular aggregation, film thickness, and thermal treatment conditions. The observed changes in optical properties suggest that this response is governed by temperature-induced modulation of molecular ordering and aggregation state, which in turn alters the electronic transitions responsible for light absorption. Theoretical calculations further support these findings, indicating that temperature-dependent intermolecular interactions and conformational changes play a significant role in shaping the optical behavior of the films. These results provide new insights into the structure-property relationships underlying thermochromism in azopolymer thin films and offer valuable guidelines for the design of thermally responsive photonic materials.</p>","PeriodicalId":8802,"journal":{"name":"Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology","volume":"17 ","pages":"186-199"},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2026-01-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12834053/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146059186","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Safe and sustainable by design with ML/AI: A transformative approach to advancing nanotechnology.","authors":"Georgia Melagraki","doi":"10.3762/bjnano.17.11","DOIUrl":"10.3762/bjnano.17.11","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Nanotechnology is revolutionizing different sectors such as medicine, energy, defence, and environmental science by enabling the development of materials and technologies with exceptional precision and efficiency. From advanced drug delivery systems to clean energy solutions, the applications of nanotechnology are diverse and transformative. However, these innovations are accompanied by complex challenges regarding safety and sustainability for both the nanoscale materials themselves and for the products containing them. The growing complexity of engineered nanomaterials calls for proactive strategies to mitigate potential risks while maintaining their functional benefits. The \"Safe and Sustainable by Design\" (SSbD) concept addresses these challenges by embedding safety measures and sustainability considerations into the earliest stages of material development. Advances in machine learning (ML) and artificial intelligence (AI) have further enhanced the effectiveness of SSbD by providing predictive modelling, risk assessment, decision-making tools, and the ability to computationally screen candidate materials before producing them. This perspective article highlights how ML and AI are driving the evolution of SSbD in nanotechnology, focussing on predictive toxicology, materials informatics, lifecycle analysis, and the pivotal role of digital twins. It also explores current challenges, emerging opportunities, and the path forward for integrating ML/AI-driven SSbD frameworks into regulatory and industrial practices.</p>","PeriodicalId":8802,"journal":{"name":"Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology","volume":"17 ","pages":"176-185"},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2026-01-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12816982/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146017274","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"From shield to spear: Charge-reversible nanocarriers in overcoming cancer therapy barriers.","authors":"Madhuri Yeduvaka, Pooja Mittal, Ameer Boyalakuntla, Usman Bee Shaik, Himanshu Sharma, Thakur Gurjeet Singh, Siva Nageswara Rao Gajula, Lakshmi Vineela Nalla","doi":"10.3762/bjnano.17.10","DOIUrl":"10.3762/bjnano.17.10","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Cancer remains a significant global health burden, responsible for 16.8% of all deaths and 30.3% of premature mortality due to noncommunicable diseases, and continues to be one of the leading causes of death worldwide despite medical progress. Conventional treatment methods such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy often face challenges such as systemic toxicity, drug resistance, and poor tumour selectivity. In response to these limitations, nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems have gained prominence for enhancing solubility, improving molecular stability, enabling controlled drug release, and prolonging systemic circulation, offering superior therapeutic outcomes over traditional approaches. Among these innovations, charge-reversible nanocarriers have attracted considerable attention due to their ability to overcome physiological and pathological barriers in the tumour microenvironment (TME) by altering their surface charge in response to specific stimuli, which enhances drug targeting while reducing off-target effects. These carriers leverage triggers such as changes in pH, enzymatic activity, redox conditions, temperature, light, ultrasound, X-rays, and magnetic fields to enable intelligent and controlled release of therapeutics. This review examines the crucial role of surface charge in cellular uptake and intracellular transport, highlighting recent advances that demonstrate improved targeting, reduced systemic toxicity, enhanced cellular internalisation, and the potential for integrated approaches, including combination therapies and theranostics. Despite these promising developments, challenges related to nanocarrier stability, safety, manufacturing scalability, and regulatory approval still impede clinical translation. Nevertheless, emerging trends in nanocarrier design, the advancement of personalised medicine, and integration with therapies (e.g., immunotherapy) underscore the transformative potential of charge-reversible nanocarriers in revolutionising cancer treatment and improving patient outcomes.</p>","PeriodicalId":8802,"journal":{"name":"Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology","volume":"17 ","pages":"159-175"},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2026-01-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12816984/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146017262","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Influence of surface characteristics on the in vitro stability and cell uptake of nanoliposomes for brain delivery.","authors":"Dushko Shalabalija, Ljubica Mihailova, Nikola Geskovski, Andreas Zimmer, Otmar Geiss, Sabrina Gioria, Diletta Scaccabarozzi, Marija Glavas Dodov","doi":"10.3762/bjnano.17.9","DOIUrl":"10.3762/bjnano.17.9","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>In contemporary research, there is a clear emphasis on the physicochemical characteristics and effectiveness of nanoliposomal (NLs) formulations. However, there has been minimal focus on elucidating nano-bio interactions and understanding the behavior of these formulations at organ and cellular levels. Specifically, it is widely recognized that when exposed to biological fluids, nanodelivery systems, including NLs, rapidly interact with various biomolecules which have a significant impact on the functionality and fate of the nanosystems but also influence cellular biological functions. Hence, the primary objective of this study was to elucidate the evolution of physicochemical characteristics and surface properties of NLs in biorelevant media. Additionally, in order to point out the influence of specific characteristics on the brain targeting potential of these formulations, we investigated interactions between NLs and blood-brain barrier (BBB, hCMEC/D3) and neuroblastoma cells (SH-SY5Y) under different conditions. The results obtained from comparative in vitro cell uptake studies on both cell culture lines after treatment with three different concentrations of fluorescently labelled NLs (5, 10, and 100 μg/mL) over a period of 1, 2, and 4 h showed a time- and concentration-dependent internalization pattern, with high impact of the surface characteristics of the different formulations. In addition, transport studies on hCMEC/D3/SH-SY5Y co-cultures confirmed the successful transport of NLs across the BBB cells and their subsequent uptake by neurons (ranging from 25.17% to 27.54%). Fluorescence and confocal microscopy micrographs revealed that, once internalized, NLs were concentrated in the perinuclear cell regions.</p>","PeriodicalId":8802,"journal":{"name":"Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology","volume":"17 ","pages":"139-158"},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2026-01-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12816991/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146017277","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Capabilities of the 3D-MLSI software tool in superconducting neuron design.","authors":"Irina E Tarasova, Nikita S Shuravin, Liubov N Karelina, Fedor A Razorenov, Evgeny N Zhardetsky, Aleksandr S Ionin, Mikhail M Khapaev, Vitaly V Bol'ginov","doi":"10.3762/bjnano.17.8","DOIUrl":"10.3762/bjnano.17.8","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>3D-MLSI is a software tool made for inductance extraction of superconducting multilayer structures. Despite long history, its capabilities had not been explored sufficiently deep for Josephson circuits based on niobium technology. Here, we present a thorough study and verification of this program in relation to adiabatic neurons, which are extremely sensitive to variations of inductive parameters. Good agreement of experimental and extracted inductances confirms the high potential of the 3D-MLSI software package for the design of superconducting electronics components.</p>","PeriodicalId":8802,"journal":{"name":"Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology","volume":"17 ","pages":"122-138"},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2026-01-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12816992/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146017212","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Development and in vitro evaluation of liposomes and immunoliposomes containing 5-fluorouracil and R-phycoerythrin as a potential phototheranostic system for colorectal cancer.","authors":"Raissa Rodrigues Camelo, Vivianne Cortez Sombra Vandesmet, Octavio Vital Baccallini, José de Brito Vieira Neto, Thais da Silva Moreira, Luzia Kalyne Almeida Moreira Leal, Claudia Pessoa, Daniel Giuliano Cerri, Maria Vitória Lopes Badra Bentley, Josimar O Eloy, Ivanildo José da Silva Júnior, Raquel Petrilli","doi":"10.3762/bjnano.17.7","DOIUrl":"10.3762/bjnano.17.7","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is the first-line drug for the treatment of colorectal cancer (CRC), which is considered the third most prevalent type of cancer in the world. R-phycoerythrin (R-PE) is a phycobiliprotein isolated from red algae such as <i>Solieria filiformis</i>, with fluorescent properties, photodynamic activity and potential for cancer treatment. However, 5-FU toxicity promotes several side effects and R-PE low stability hampers its clinical use. Thus, the present work aimed to develop co-encapsulated liposomes system for co-delivery of 5-FU and R-PE as theranostic nanosystems for CRC, as well as immunoliposomes targeted with the anti-EGFR monoclonal antibody, cetuximab, as a strategy for targeted delivery to EGFR-positive CRC. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to report the development and in vitro evaluation of liposomes and immunoliposomes co-encapsulating 5-FU and R-PE. Thus, liposomes containing 25 mg or 50 mg of soybean phosphatidylcholine (SPC), diesterolphosphatidylcholine (DSPC), dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), hydrogenated soybean phosphatidylcholine (HSPC) with cholesterol (Chol) and 1,2-distearol-<i>sn</i>-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-<i>N</i>-[amino(polyethylene glycol)-2000] (DSPE-PEG 2000) were prepared and characterized. Among the liposomes, those containing HSPC lipid at 50 mg showed a low polydispersity index (PDI) (0.100 ± 0.022), small size (103.43 ± 1.31 nm), and slightly negative zeta potential (-12.23 ± 0.35 mV). The encapsulation efficiency (EE%) was 94 ± 2.4% for R-PE and 42 ± 2.8% for 5-FU. Regarding the stability study, the liposomes maintained vesicle size, PDI and zeta potential values in a stable range. From the choice of the 50 mg HSPC liposome, the immunoliposomes were developed. The selected immunoliposomes, composed HSPC/DOPE/Chol/DSPE-PEG-Mal in a ratio of 64:10:22.2:3.7, were named HSPC IM 07. This formulation presented low PDI (0.185 ± 0.01), small vesicle size (99.45 ± 1.81 nm), negative zeta potential (-14.8 ± 0.81 mV) and antibody conjugation efficiency of 34.4%. Topographical AFM analysis showed that HSPC-IM-R-PE presented significantly higher surface roughness and viscoelastic contrast, indicating successful antibody anchoring. For cell viability in the HCT-116 CCR cell line, the IC₅₀ values for immunoliposomes were higher than those for liposomes. Also, for phototoxicity experiments it was found a reduction in IC₅₀ for all groups tested. The internalization of R-PE was verified, highlighting a greater internalization in the immunoliposome within 24 h. Thus, the HSPC 50 formulation containing R-PE and 5-FU, functionalized with cetuximab, is a promising alternative for the development of co-encapsulation delivery systems as a phototheranostic nanocarriers.</p>","PeriodicalId":8802,"journal":{"name":"Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology","volume":"17 ","pages":"97-121"},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2026-01-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12794661/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145965111","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Microscopic study of the intermediate mixed state in intertype superconductors.","authors":"Vyacheslav D Neverov, Alexander V Kalashnikov, Andrey V Krasavin, Alexei Vagov","doi":"10.3762/bjnano.17.5","DOIUrl":"10.3762/bjnano.17.5","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>We present a comprehensive microscopic study of the intermediate mixed state in superconductors of the intertype (IT) regime separating types I and II. Using fully self-consistent Bogoliubov-de Gennes calculations for a lattice model, we analyze few-vortex configurations across the entire temperature range 0 <i>< T < T</i> _c. Our results demonstrate the key features of IT superconductivity, namely, nonmonotonic vortex interactions and formation of vortex clusters. Using results of the calculations, we construct a \"temperature-coupling\" phase diagram that delineates distinct superconducting regimes and shows their convergence at a single Bogomolnyi point, consistent with earlier predictions of extended Ginzburg-Landau theory. Additionally, we identify a deep IT region of irregular vortex configurations apparently dominated by many-body vortex effects. The results establish a fully microscopic foundation for the IT superconductivity and extend its description beyond the vicinity of the critical temperature.</p>","PeriodicalId":8802,"journal":{"name":"Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology","volume":"17 ","pages":"57-62"},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2026-01-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12794651/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145965029","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Functional surface engineering for cultural heritage protection: the role of superhydrophobic and superoleophobic coatings - a comprehensive review.","authors":"Giuseppe Cesare Lama, Marino Lavorgna, Letizia Verdolotti, Federica Recupido, Giovanna Giuliana Buonocore, Bharat Bhushan","doi":"10.3762/bjnano.17.6","DOIUrl":"10.3762/bjnano.17.6","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The preservation of cultural heritage sites and objects faces critical challenges due to natural aging, environmental degradation, and human-induced damage such as vandalism and graffiti. This review article explores recent advancements in protective strategies for heritage materials including stone, concrete, ceramic, glass, metal, wood, and textiles. Special attention is given to the development and application of superhydrophobic and superoleophobic coatings, which offer promising defense against moisture, pollutants, and oily substances. These functional surfaces, often based on coatings consisting of polymeric, ceramic, and composite materials, can provide durable, non-invasive protection tailored to specific substrate weaknesses and exposure environments (indoor and outdoor). Objective of this review article is to critically examine the most recent studies and materials innovations relevant to cultural heritage site preservation. First the assessment of substrate vulnerabilities and environmental threats is presented, followed by a detailed analysis of coating types and compositions. It concludes with emerging trends, challenges, and future perspectives, offering a valuable resource for researchers, conservators, and materials scientists committed to the long-term safeguarding of historical artifacts and monuments.</p>","PeriodicalId":8802,"journal":{"name":"Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology","volume":"17 ","pages":"63-96"},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2026-01-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12794662/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145965106","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Subdigital integumentary microstructure in <i>Cyrtodactylus</i> (Squamata: Gekkota): do those lineages with incipiently expressed toepads exclusively exhibit adhesive setae?","authors":"Philipp Ginal, Yannick Ecker, Timothy Higham, L Lee Grismer, Benjamin Wipfler, Dennis Rödder, Anthony Russell, Jendrian Riedel","doi":"10.3762/bjnano.17.4","DOIUrl":"10.3762/bjnano.17.4","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>In taxa such as insects, spiders, bats, frogs, and lizards, adhesive structures at the distal ends of their limbs have independently evolved, enabling the animals to adhere to inclined or even inverted surfaces. The adhesive apparatus of geckos functions via a complex interaction among muscles, bones, vascular tissue, and microscopic epidermal microstructures. The microstructures of geckos are classifiable as spinules, spines, prongs and setae, but only setae, which possess spatulate tips, promote adhesive competency sufficient to support body mass employing van der Waals forces. Several studies indicate that the form of toepad microstructures might be specific to the exploitation of the attributes of the substrata employed during habitat use. The species-rich genus <i>Cyrtodactylus</i> exhibits extensive variation in the shape of the subdigital scales associated with different habitats, making it a promising candidate for studying toepad evolution. We investigated the subdigital microstructures of 27 <i>Cyrtodactylus</i> species occupying a wide range of habitats, and exhibiting a spectrum of subdigital morphology, from the presence of the ancestral condition of small, rounded scales to the early-stage development of macroscopically visible incipient toepads. Using SEM and phylogenetic comparative analyses, our objectives were to (a) clarify how integumentary microstructural traits relate to the presence of incipient toepads and (b) identify potential adaptations linked to specific habitat types. We hypothesized that (1) species showing incipient toepad development will possess setae, while those lacking obvious macrostructural modifications should exhibit only spines, prongs, or spinules. Additionally, we hypothesized that either (2) the presence of setae is associated with arboreal lifestyles and, to a lesser extent, with rock-dwelling ecotypes; or (3) alternatively, microstructural traits are more strongly influenced by phylogeny, with closely related species exhibiting more similar toepad features than those more distantly related. We found setae, spines, and prongs on the incipient toepads. Spines were found to be the ancestral subdigital microstructures of <i>Cyrtodactylus</i>, with multiple independent transitions to prongs (three times) and setae (twice). One shift towards setae defines a largely seta-bearing clade, exhibiting a strong phylogenetic signal and supports our third hypothesis. Most transitions to incipient toepads occurred within this clade, consistent with hypothesis 1, and we reveal that the evolution of setae likely preceded that of broadened scales. Although microstructure types did not significantly correlate with ecotype, specific morphometric traits varied significantly among both microstructure types and ecotypes.</p>","PeriodicalId":8802,"journal":{"name":"Beilstein Journal of Nanotechnology","volume":"17 ","pages":"38-56"},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2026-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12794655/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145965092","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}