Fire Technology最新文献

{"title":"Inhibition Mechanisms of CF₄ on Methane-Hydrogen Co-combustion: A Molecular Dynamics Study","authors":"Yuhang Ge,&nbsp;Dihua Ouyang,&nbsp;Wei Chen","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01973-5","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01973-5","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Hydrogen-blended natural gas (HCNG, primarily composed of CH₄–H₂ mixtures) holds high greenhouse gas emission reduction potential, but its large-scale application is hindered by fire and explosion risks under high-temperature and high-pressure conditions. To reduce these risks, ReaxFF molecular dynamics (ReaxFF-MD) was conducted to investigate the effects of CF₄ on CH₄–H₂–O₂ combustion at 2400–3200 K and 100 MPa. Results revealed that CF₄ significantly suppressed combustion through multiple mechanisms. Specifically, with CF₄ addition, OH and HO₂ radicals were consumed via combination with intermediates generated from CF₄, such as CH₃F. Meanwhile, CH₃ radicals gradually accumulated due to blocked consumption pathways. Moreover, F radicals competed with the CH₄–H₂–O₂ chain reaction through reactions such as H₂ + F → HF + H, thereby reducing the concentration of radicals (e.g., OH). Additionally, quantitative analysis showed that at 10% CF₄ concentration, the ignition delay was prolonged by 48.00% and maximum consumption rate reduced by 17.91%, with activation energies for CH₄ and H₂ oxidation increased by 7.31% and 15.10%, respectively. This work clarifies the distinct kinetic mechanisms of CF₄ inhibition in CH₄-H₂ blended combustion, laying a theoretical foundation for fire hazard mitigation and targeted prevention strategies throughout the HCNG lifecycle.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148614740","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Hybrid FEM-Surrogate Enhanced Framework for Thermo-Mechanical Degradation in Concrete Beams Under Hydrocarbon Fire","authors":"Anshu Sharma,&nbsp;Basuraj Bhowmik","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01971-7","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01971-7","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Concrete structures exposed to elevated temperatures undergo progressive thermal and mechanical degradation, compromising serviceability and safety. This study examines plain cement concrete (PCC) and reinforced cement concrete (RCC) beams across multiple grades subjected to hydrocarbon fire, integrating finite element modelling (FEM) with calibrated surrogate models. A curated dataset spanning temperature, grade, and beam type supports the training of Gaussian process regression (GPR), support vector regression (SVR), and gradient boosted machines (GBM). Cross validation with standardized residuals provides diagnostic calibration, while external benchmarking against independent FEM simulations ensures physical consistency. Results indicate that the effective thermal conductivity indicator <span>(k_{textrm{eff}})</span>, derived from transient thermal field outputs under Eurocode-consistent temperature-dependent conductivity inputs, decreases with temperature in a manner consistent with moisture loss and microstructural evolution in heated concrete, while thermo-mechanical response reveals sharp escalation of displacements beyond <span>(500^{circ }textrm{C})</span>, rapid crack width expansion after <span>(350^{circ }textrm{C})</span>, and concentration of von Mises stresses at beam edges. Across most targets and materials, GPR achieves the strongest overall fidelity and provides calibrated predictive dispersion, while GBM yields the lowest PCC crack-width error and SVR exhibits the largest deviations in strongly nonlinear regimes. Design charts and three-dimensional response surfaces, overlaid with FEM samples, provide practitioner tools for risk-aware screening. The integrated FEM-surrogate framework offers computational efficiency while preserving accuracy, enabling rapid assessment of fire-induced behaviour and aligning with performance-based design strategies for resilient infrastructure.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-026-01971-7.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148614860","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Machine Learning for Bridge Fire Performance Assessment: Methods, Challenges, and Future Directions","authors":"Paul O. Awoyera,&nbsp;Faisal Mukhtar","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01970-8","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01970-8","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Bridge fires pose a significant threat to the safety, serviceability, and resilience of transportation infrastructure. Conventional approaches for assessing bridge performance under fire, including experimental testing, finite element analysis (FEA), computational fluid dynamics (CFD), and simplified analytical methods, provide valuable insights but involve trade-offs between modelling fidelity, computational cost, and practical applicability. These limitations have stimulated growing interest in machine learning (ML) as a complementary tool for rapid and data-driven bridge fire performance assessment. This paper presents a critical review of recent advances in ML for assessing the fire performance of bridges. Existing studies are examined with emphasis on the underlying databases, input features, prediction capabilities, and reported model performance. Current challenges, including the limited availability of bridge fire databases, model generalization, interpretability, uncertainty quantification, and practical implementation, are critically discussed. Emerging developments, such as explainable artificial intelligence, transfer learning, and physics-informed machine learning, are also reviewed for their potential to improve the reliability and engineering applicability of future prediction models. Based on the current state of knowledge, the principal research gaps are identified, and future research directions are proposed to support the development of robust, interpretable, and physics-consistent ML frameworks for bridge fire performance assessment. The review provides a consolidated reference for researchers and practicing engineers working in bridge fire engineering.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148614861","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Reaction to Fire of Birch Plywood Bonded with Three Different Adhesive Systems at Multiple Scales","authors":"Christoph Preimesberger,&nbsp;Georg Baumgartner,&nbsp;Christoph Pfeifer,&nbsp;Christian Hansmann","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01972-6","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01972-6","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>This study investigates the reaction to fire of 9-layer birch plywood bonded with three industrially relevant adhesive systems: urea formaldehyde (UF), melamine urea formaldehyde (MUF), and phenol formaldehyde (PF). Panels were prepared under standardized conditions and evaluated at multiple scales—ranging from fuel property characterisation and thermogravimetric analysis to bench-scale cone calorimetry and ignition testing in the single flame test (SFT). A self-constructed Mini-SBI test (downscaled single burning item test) was developed to capture intermediate-scale reaction to fire with a focus on the orientation of the surface veneer layer. Results reveal that UF-bonded plywood, particularly with lengthwise-oriented surface veneers, exhibited the most critical fire response, including increased susceptibility to ignition during extended localized flame exposure and fire growth promoted by adhesive-controlled veneer separation. PF-bonded samples showed greater thermal stability and higher char formation. MUF-bonded samples exhibited comparatively favourable ignition behaviour, while smoke-production differences among the adhesive systems were not statistically significant. Differences in thermal degradation and flammability highlight the influence of adhesive chemistry and veneer orientation on the reaction to fire of the material. The Mini-SBI setup differentiated between material variants and demonstrated its potential as a material-efficient intermediate-scale method for comparative fire testing during product development. This work highlights the need for adhesive-specific consideration in fire safety assessments of engineered wood products.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-026-01972-6.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148614317","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Mitigating Thermal Runaway Propagation of Pouch Batteries by Intumescent Flame-Retardant Epoxy Resin Plates","authors":"Fuhao Yang,&nbsp;Luyao Zhao,&nbsp;Minxue Zheng,&nbsp;Mingyi Chen","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01969-1","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01969-1","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Lithium-ion batteries are core power sources for electric vehicles. However, they face serious safety concerns associated with thermal runaway. In this study, a novel intumescent flame-retardant epoxy resin (IFRE) was developed and used as a firewall between pouch batteries to mitigate thermal runaway propagation (TRP). The IFRE is based on epoxy resin, with ammonium polyphosphate as the acid source, pentaerythritol as the carbon source, melamine as the gas source, nano-aluminum hydroxide and attapulgite as fillers, and modified with SiB₆ and expanded graphite. The synthesized IFRE4 sample exhibits excellent flame-retardant properties. In the large plate test, the backside temperature of steel plate coated with IFRE4 was only 158.6 ℃ after 15 min of flame impingement. It achieved a V-0 rating in the vertical burning test, with a limiting oxygen index of 35.7%. In the cone calorimeter test, its peak heat release rate, total heat release, peak smoke production rate, total smoke production, and char residue rate are 271.80 kW/m², 47.25 MJ/m², 0.089 m²/s, 16.63 m³, and 39.23%, respectively. This IFRE releases non-combustible gases at high temperatures, forms a dense porous char layer, expands its volume to 8 times the original, and significantly increases thermal resistance between batteries. When used as a fire wall between 10Ah pouch batteries, a 4-mm thick material can stop the TRP, and the maximum temperature of battery is reduced by approximately 50%, reaching only 348 ˚C. This study provides a novel material for suppressing TRP in battery packs in the future, which can effectively enhance battery safety.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148614316","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Analysis of Cargo-Related Fires on Container Vessels Using an HFACS-Based Association Rule Mining Approach","authors":"Binnur Olgun Kaptan,&nbsp;Mehmet Kaptan","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01967-3","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01967-3","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Cargo-related fires on container vessels have become a critical safety concern in maritime transportation due to their increasing frequency and the severe human, environmental, and economic losses they cause. The multidimensional nature of these incidents requires that fire risk be addressed not only in terms of technical failures but also in relation to system-level weaknesses in human, organisational, and operational processes. The aim of this study is to classify the causes of cargo-related fires in the cargo areas of container vessels using the Human Factors Analysis and Classification System (HFACS) and to identify critical risk patterns using Association Rule Mining (ARM) techniques. Full-text accident investigation reports obtained from official databases were systematically coded according to the HFACS-PV framework. The resulting qualitative data were transformed into a binary dataset and analysed using the Apriori and Predictive Apriori algorithms. The results indicate that misdeclaration and misclassification of cargo under the IMDG Code, inadequate documentation control, stowage planning errors, and deficiencies in information sharing are key contributors to fire initiation. Furthermore, reduced situational awareness, communication failures, and delayed response behaviours were found to intensify fire severity under adverse operational conditions.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148613706","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Numerical Analysis and Design for Residual Patch-Loading Resistance of S690 HSS Corrugated Web I-Girders Subjected to Elevated Temperatures","authors":"Showkat Ahmad Kumar,&nbsp;Javed Ahmad Bhat,&nbsp;Fayaz Ahmad Sofi,&nbsp;G. A. Harmain","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01963-7","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01963-7","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Steel structures that survive a fire without collapse are assessed for their residual load-bearing capacity, which becomes imperative for determining their post-fire serviceability. Concurrently, high-strength steels, particularly S690, have been increasingly adopted in modern bridge construction worldwide, exemplified by structures such as the Mttådalen Bridge in Sweden. This study presents the first systematic numerical investigation of the post-fire patch-loading behavior of high-strength S690 CWGs. Unlike previous studies primarily focused on flat-web girders or ambient-temperature response, the present work quantitatively evaluates the influence of trapezoidal web corrugation on the residual stiffness, strength degradation, instability evolution, and patch loading resistance of CWGs after fire exposure. The study further examines the applicability of existing patch-loading design formulations at elevated temperatures. It proposes a practical, design-oriented assessment approach by incorporating temperature-dependent residual material degradation into the Elgaaly-Seshadri model. The findings provide new quantitative insights into the post-fire structural response of CWGs and establish a basis for future fire-resistant design and for the assessment of residual strength in CWG bridges. Post-fire material degradation was incorporated using reduced mechanical properties of S690 steel reported in the literature. Temperature-dependent material models were used to numerically investigate the post-fire behavior of the CWGs. Since no experimental post-fire tests were available for validation, the presented post-fire responses should be interpreted as numerical predictions based on adopted constitutive relationships. The developed FE model was validated at ambient temperature against available experimental results, and the corresponding FE predictions were further benchmarked against existing design models for patch-loading resistance to evaluate their accuracy and conservatism under room-temperature conditions. Results reveal the critical role of web geometry in post-fire stiffness, strength, and stability, providing quantitative insights for improving predictive models.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148466350","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Investigation on the System Performance and Fire Extinguishing Performance of Compressed Air Foam System Under Varied Altitudes","authors":"Yi Guo,&nbsp;Jiaqing Zhang,&nbsp;Guocheng Ding,&nbsp;Youjie Sheng,&nbsp;Shouxiang Lu,&nbsp;Yang Li","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01935-x","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01935-x","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The compressed air foam system (CAFS) has demonstrated significant potential for use in combating flammable liquid fires at ultra-high voltage (UHV) substations in high-altitude environments. However, the system performance and fire extinguishing performance of CAFS at high altitude are unclear. In this study, the performance of the air compressor, water pump, and CAFS at different altitudes was studied. Besides, the fire extinguishing performance of CAFS at different altitudes, different system flow rates, and different expansion ratios (ERs) was also studied. Results indicated that as the altitude increases, the gas pressure decreases, the pressurization time of the air compressor increases, and the pressurization efficiency decreases. The flow and outlet pressure of the water pump increased with increasing altitude. Besides, the fire extinguishing performance of the CAFS is improved as the altitude or the system flow rate increases. The optimal parameter settings for CAFS with excellent system performance and fire extinguishing performance at high altitude are 11.4 L/min of the system flow rate and 8 times the ER. The results of this paper can guide flammable liquid fire prevention and control in UHV substations at high altitude.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148466348","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Fire Risk Model for Low-Rise Buildings Based on Extension Cloud Theory and Numerical Simulation: With DEMATEL-BWM Weighting and Dynamic Risk Analysis","authors":"Yang Zhao,&nbsp;Zhi-Xiang Xing,&nbsp;Rui Xing,&nbsp;Qian Xu,&nbsp;Yu-Yang Li,&nbsp;Ming Peng,&nbsp;Long-Tai Qi,&nbsp;Ye-Cheng Liu","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01960-w","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01960-w","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Low-rise buildings are widely distributed in residential areas and small commercial zones. Therefore, ensuring their fire safety is crucial for protecting lives and property. However, existing fire risk assessment methods involve incomplete index systems and do not sufficiently consider risk factors in fire scenes, thereby failing to identify hazards accurately. Consequently, these methods cannot be used to formulate effective fire prevention strategies. Accordingly, this study developed a fire risk assessment model based on extension cloud theory and numerical simulation for low-rise buildings. It established an evaluation index system covering the dimensions of personnel, equipment, management, building, environment, and dynamic risk in fire scenes and then determined index weights by using a combination of the Decision-Making Trial and Evaluation Laboratory and best–worst methods. Dynamic risk factors were simulated using PyroSim to analyze how temperature, CO concentration, and visibility affected risk. The following fire development patterns were identified by comparing five scenes: (1) smoke spreads preferentially to the top floor and the floor on which the fire originates; (2) stairway fires cause vertical smoke movement that endangers upper-floor evacuation; (3) fires in the middle of a corridor cause heat accumulation and thus hinder evacuation from the corresponding floor; (4) a mechanical smoke exhaust system with a reasonable layout reduces fire risk; and (5) automatic sprinkler systems can cool the surroundings, capture smoke, improve visibility, and increase the time available for evacuation. Overall, this study offers new insights and methods for fire risk assessment in low-rise buildings.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148466349","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Flow Analysis and Engineering Design of Perfluorohexanone Fire-Extinguishing Pipe Networks","authors":"WenBin Zhang,&nbsp;Ruiyang Lu,&nbsp;Zhangfeng Huang,&nbsp;Changxing Ren,&nbsp;Fengchen Li,&nbsp;Xin Liu","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01962-8","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01962-8","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Perfluorohexanone (C₆F₁₂O, FK-5-1-12) is a fluorinated fire-extinguishing agent with high suppression efficiency and distinctive engineering applicability. However, systematic research on the flow mechanisms and engineering design methods of C₆F₁₂O fire-extinguishing pipe networks remains limited. This paper develops a theoretical pipe-network model for gaseous fire-extinguishing systems and conducts C₆F₁₂O discharge experiments. The effects of the expansion coefficient on the discharge process and flow characteristics are examined, and a recommended range is proposed. To address practical engineering design needs, a general engineering method for fire-extinguishing pipe networks is proposed without relying on empirical parameters. The results show that the expansion coefficient significantly affects the discharge duration, and <i>γ</i> = 1.15–1.20 is recommended for engineering calculations. The operating process of gaseous fire-extinguishing systems can be divided into four typical stages. Theoretical predictions agree well with experimental measurements qualitatively, and the quantitative deviations are within 20%. For both perfluorohexanone and heptafluoropropane (C₃HF₇) systems, the proposed pipe-network engineering method yields results highly consistent with the theoretical model, with errors controlled within 10%. The algorithm is highly accurate and broadly applicable to the engineering calculation and design of various gaseous fire-extinguishing systems. This study provides a theoretical foundation and methodological support for the standardized design of gaseous fire-extinguishing systems using fluorinated agents.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148466351","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}