Fire Technology最新文献

{"title":"Linking Accident Data and Physics-Based Modeling for Hydrogen Fire Safety","authors":"Abderrahim Zermane","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01961-9","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01961-9","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Hydrogen accident databases contain rich descriptions of incident scenarios and consequences, but they often lack explicit physical metrics needed for quantitative fire and explosion modelling. In this work, we present a framework to reconstruct key physical parameters - such as fuel mass, heat release rate (HRR), flame length, explosion-energy potential, and notional overpressure indicators - from the qualitative and semi-quantitative descriptions in the Joint Research Centre (JRC) Hydrogen Incident and Accident Database (HIAD 2.1). By merging multiple HIAD tables and applying transparent first-order engineering relationships, we derive approximate physical descriptors that can be used for screening, comparison, and uncertainty-aware interpretation of accident records. The reconstructed dataset of 954 hydrogen-related incidents is analyzed to reveal order-of-magnitude distributions of fire sizes and explosion-energy potential. The reconstructed quantities are compared with available observations where possible, but they are not treated as high-fidelity validation data because several key parameters, including leak diameter, participating cloud mass, confinement, and ignition timing, are often missing. Monte Carlo uncertainty propagation is performed to account for data uncertainties, yielding confidence bounds on the estimated parameters. The derived physical parameters are further compared with reported incident outcomes (fatalities, damage) to explore their predictive value. Results show that the incident scenarios span several orders of magnitude in energy release, and while the framework can estimate physically reasonable order-of-magnitude parameters, direct correlations with consequences are weak - underscoring the influence of exposure, mitigating factors, and safety measures. The estimates should therefore be interpreted as reconstruction-based hazard descriptors rather than measured incident parameters; their main value is to expose the physical scale of reported events and the consequences of missing accident-reporting fields. Nevertheless, this approach provides a useful bridge between empirical accident records and physics-based fire safety interpretation. The outcomes can support screening-level comparison with engineering tools, improve risk assessments with transparent assumptions, and guide the development of safety guidelines grounded in both data and physics.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148466423","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Analysis on Thermal Runaway Propagation Characteristics and Efficacy of Water Sprinkler System in Shelf Storage of 46,120 Ternary Lithium Batteries","authors":"Xiaojie Liu,&nbsp;Wenhai Zhang,&nbsp;Menglin Yang,&nbsp;Xinyu Yang,&nbsp;Zhenyu Zhang,&nbsp;Yuhan Song,&nbsp;Xiaoyong Liu","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01959-3","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01959-3","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Taking the 46,120 cylindrical ternary lithium-ion battery as the research object, A full-scale experimental setup with 512 cells was designed to evaluate TR behavior under varying conditions, including TR initiation positions (upper tray edge, lower tray edge, lower tray center), sprinkler arrangements (top-spray, side-spray), and shelf layouts (double-layer, single-layer). The experimental results show that the TR propagation is highly dependent on cell location, and under the same case, the vertical propagation speed ((7.7 ± 0.5)×10^− 5m/s) is significantly higher than the horizontal((5.5 ± 0.4)×10^− 5m/s). In different sprinkler layout configuration, the top-spray sprinkler arrangement has suppression efficiency with 1-seconds response time, outperforming side-spray sprinkler, which failed to trigger sprinkler response. After the optimization of the shelf layout, the sprinkler trigger time is shortened by 89.8% and 97.6% for edge and center TR positions, respectively, while the efficiency of the sprinkler system is improved by 99.6% and 95.2%. This study provides critical data for optimizing fire protection systems in lithium-ion battery storage facilities, and has reference significance for the storage safety of lithium-ion batteries.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148466369","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Roadmap for Research in Human Behaviour in Fires: Vision, Actions, and Outcomes","authors":"Stephen D. Wong,&nbsp;Erica Kuligowski,&nbsp;Milad Haghani,&nbsp;Katelynn Kapalo,&nbsp;Erica Kinkel,&nbsp;Mary Langridge Button,&nbsp;Ruggiero Lovreglio,&nbsp;Enrico Ronchi,&nbsp;C. Natalie van der Wal","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01928-w","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01928-w","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148466158","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Performance Evaluation of a Novel Deflagration Venting Solution for Battery Energy Storage System Explosion Protection","authors":"Lorenz Boeck,&nbsp;Marius Bloching,&nbsp;Johannes Lottermann","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01942-y","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01942-y","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>This study evaluates the performance of a newly developed deflagration vent for the protection of Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS). The device enables side-mounted deflagration venting of BESS enclosures with upward flame deflection, addressing critical limitations of conventional roof-mounted systems that prevent container stacking, are vulnerable to snow loading, and restrict design flexibility. Intermediate-scale vented explosion tests were conducted using a 2.79-m³ test vessel with a 305 mm × 610 mm vent opening. The direct-comparison method of EN 14797 was adopted to evaluate venting device performance against inertia-free reference standards. A reactivity scaling approach using hydrogen-methane surrogate fuels was applied to achieve equivalent rates of pressure rise (d<i>p</i>/d<i>t</i>) between the test volume and full-scale BESS applications, accounting for volumetric scaling effects. A physics-based model was developed to predict venting performance by integrating flame propagation analysis with structural panel dynamics. Testing with stoichiometric methane and hydrogen-methane mixtures demonstrated consistent structural integrity and venting performance. The deflagration vent achieved venting efficiencies (<i>E</i>_f) of 66 − 70% (EN 14994) and 70 − 74% (NFPA 68) across low explosion pressures (<i>p</i>_red ≈ 0.1 bar-g) to higher pressures (<i>p</i>_red ≈ 1.1 bar-g). Flame deflection angles ranged from 45 − 46° at low <i>p</i>_red and 38 − 39° at high <i>p</i>_red, confirming efficient upward flame deflection. This technology can enable more versatile and energy-dense BESS deployments, including stacked container systems, and addresses several potential failure modes of roof-mounted venting systems while maintaining safety performance.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148465917","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Impact of Water Spray Conditions on Cooling of Thermal-Runaway Lithium-Ion Battery: Mechanisms and Optimization","authors":"Shenghao Luo,&nbsp;Zhengguo Zhang,&nbsp;Ziye Ling,&nbsp;Xiaoming Fang,&nbsp;Shuping Wang","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01958-4","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01958-4","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Lithium-ion battery (LIB) incidents remain challenging to mitigate because thermal runaway (TR) cells retain substantial internal heat, which can drive re-ignition and thermal runaway propagation (TRP) if suppression cooling is delayed or under-designed. This study combines pure-water spray cooling experiments on a 51 Ah prismatic NCM cell undergoing TR with a validated three-dimensional heat-transfer model to quantify how spray duration (<span>(:tau:)</span>), total sprayed mass (<span>(:{M}_{spray})</span>), nozzle height (<span>(:{H}_{spray})</span>), and cell properties govern cooling outcomes. Cooling performance is evaluated using the rebound-peak temperature after spray termination (<span>(:{T}_{reb})</span>) and the cumulative exposure time above 150 °C (<span>(:{t}_{&gt;150:^circ:C})</span>), where 150 °C is adopted as a conservative threshold for propagation risk. A validated three-dimensional transient heat-transfer model was established to describe post-TR spray cooling, internal heat redistribution, and temperature rebound. Under <span>(:{M}_{spray})</span> = 5 kg and <span>(:{H}_{spray})</span> = 0.25 m, τ ≈ 310 s minimizes <span>(:{t}_{&gt;150:^circ:C})</span> while keeping <span>(:{T}_{reb})</span> low. The existence of an optimal <span>(:tau:)</span> reflects a trade-off: short <span>(:tau:)</span> is limited by internal heat conduction and induces strong post-spray rebound, whereas long <span>(:tau:)</span> reduces the impingement mass flux and slows the early-stage cooling rate. Increasing <span>(:{M}_{spray})</span> reduces <span>(:{t}_{&gt;150:^circ:C})</span> with diminishing returns, and increasing <span>(:{H}_{spray})</span> monotonically degrades performance. Across prismatic cells, the recommended <span>(:tau:)</span>shifts with cell geometry and thermal load, consistent with the role of thermal diffusion in post-spray heat redistribution. Finally, a Gaussian process regression surrogate model was developed to predict <span>(:{T}_{text{r}text{e}text{b}})</span>, <span>(:{t}_{&gt;150,text{D}text{S}})</span>, <span>(:{t}_{&gt;150,text{A}text{S}})</span>, and <span>(:{t}_{&gt;150,text{t}text{o}text{t}text{a}text{l}})</span> from spray conditions and cell-related parameters. Grouped five-fold cross-validation yielded <span>(:{R}^{2}=0.989-0.997)</span>, supporting rapid screening of spray settings within the investigated parameter ranges.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148380164","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"From Thermal Runaway to Fire Hazard: A Multi-parameter Evaluation of State of Charge Effects in 280 Ah Lithium Iron Phosphate Battery","authors":"Yichao Zhang,&nbsp;Zhiyuan Li,&nbsp;Chengdong Wang,&nbsp;Pengjie Liu,&nbsp;Wenxin Mei,&nbsp;Qingsong Wang,&nbsp;Jinhua Sun,&nbsp;Qiangling Duan","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01957-5","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01957-5","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Safety concerns surrounding thermal runaway (TR) pose a significant challenge to the large-scale deployment of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in energy storage systems. Although lithium iron phosphate (LFP) batteries exhibit relatively high intrinsic safety, they can still present fire risks when used in large-scale, highly integrated energy storage applications. This study systematically investigates the TR behavior and multi-parameter evolution of large capacity LFP batteries at different states of charge (SOCs) under external heating abuse and post-ignition conditions in a standard combustion test platform. Experimental results show that both TR kinetics and thermodynamic characteristics strongly depend on SOC. High-SOC cells show the most rapid internal TR propagation rate of approximately 0.841 mm·s⁻¹ and exhibit a peak heat-release rate exceeding 90 kW after ignition. In contrast, low-SOC cells display the highest apparent pressure-rise-rate indicator upon safety vent activation, reaching 3585 Pa·s⁻¹. Additionally, estimation of cell normalized HRR relative to common fuels demonstrates that LFP batteries can still exhibit significant fire hazards. A TR multi-parameter comparative visualization framework, developed using radar-chart visualization and key TR characteristic parameters, further indicates that lowering SOC effectively mitigates overall TR hazards. This work elucidates the relationships among TR behavior, fire hazards, and SOC in LFP batteries, and the proposed multi-parameter visualization framework offers a basis for enhancing the safety design and practical deployment of energy storage systems.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148380640","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Extinguishing Tests of Li-Ion Battery Modules","authors":"Rudolf Reclo,&nbsp;Nikolas Schwan,&nbsp;Christian Geib,&nbsp;Hans-Georg Schweiger","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01956-6","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01956-6","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Li-Ion batteries still prove to be difficult to extinguish throughout many experimental studies. The effectivity of different extinguishing agents has been analyzed in this study. Thermal runaway has been initiated in modules via external heat and different extinguishing agents have been applied on the modules to compare the effectiveness of their extinguishing properties. The study provides a reference for future choice of extinguishing agent in the event of a li-ion battery fire.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-026-01956-6.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148380641","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Influence of Wall Collapse on Fire Dynamics and Spread in Informal Settlement Dwellings with Inert and Combustible Cladding Walls","authors":"Rodolfo Prediger Helfenstein,&nbsp;Mohamed Beshir,&nbsp;Felipe Roman Centeno","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01955-7","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01955-7","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Six full-scale ISO 9705 rooms, built with timber frames and clad with either inert (corrugated galvanized steel sheets) or combustible (wood) materials, were numerically modeled under multiple fire load conditions to investigate the changes in fire dynamics resulting from an idealized instantaneous collapse of the compartment’s front wall and its influence on nearby combustible materials. Fire Dynamics Simulator (FDS) was used to simulate the fire behavior and the potential fire spread resulting from the dwellings with both cladding materials. The results showed that the front wall collapse changed the fire regime in both dwellings due to the sudden change in ventilation, which increased the air inflow and smoke outflow. This change allowed more fuel to burn inside the structure, reducing the amount of fuel burning in the external environment. Although the radiative heat flux generally decreased with distance from the compartment, the wall collapse significantly altered its spatial distribution, redistributing thermal radiation across the frontal region and modifying peak flux locations depending on fire load and cladding material. Under high fire load conditions, the wall collapse partially modified this behavior, particularly for the combustible dwelling, where increased heat flux and a wider affected area were observed. By comparing the predicted radiative heat fluxes with critical heat flux thresholds reported in the literature, the results indicate that separation distances commonly considered critical in previous studies may be insufficient under medium and high fire load conditions, particularly when combustible cladding is present. Under the specific conditions analyzed, ignition potential at 2.1 m remained significant for medium and high fire loads, while at 3.1 m the predicted susceptibility was reduced, especially for inert cladding under low fire load conditions.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-026-01955-7.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148380609","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Study on Convective Heat Transfer Coefficient in the Side Boundary Layer Under the Action of Tunnel Fire Smoke Movement","authors":"Zhequn Zhu,&nbsp;Weifeng Zhao,&nbsp;Xueliang Fan,&nbsp;Yelin Deng,&nbsp;Wenhui Li,&nbsp;Zhenyu Yu,&nbsp;Shushen Zhang","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01951-x","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01951-x","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>During a tunnel fire, the tunnel’s lining and internal structure suffer significant thermal damage, necessitating an investigation into the heat transfer patterns on the tunnel wall surfaces during such events. Convective heat transfer at the side walls is a crucial aspect. Therefore, it is of great significance to study the longitudinal variation of convective heat transfer coefficient. Through numerical simulation, the thickness of velocity boundary layer is studied first, then the data is analyzed and the corresponding empirical equation is proposed. Based on this relationship, the momentum and energy equations are modified to obtain a <i>Nu-Re</i> correlation for heat release rate ranges of 5 to 20 MW. This correlation represents the relationship between convective heat transfer intensity and smoke flow patterns. Meanwhile, this paper employs the critical Reynolds number to delineate the two stages of convection heat transfer: the stage of rapid intensity reduction and the stage of stablilization. The value of critical Reynolds number increases with the rise in sidewall height. Consequently, the complete <i>Nu-Re</i> correlation is divided into two parts. For Reynolds numbers below the critical value, the Nusselt number (<i>Nu</i>) is correlated with the Reynolds number (<i>Re</i>) using theoretical results from the energy equation. Beyond this threshold, the relationship transitions to a linear one. The accuracy of this correlation model is verified through numerical simulations.Finally, a method for calculating the average Nusselt number is derived, confirming the feasibility of using <i>Re</i>-based dimensionless criteria in studying heat transfer during tunnel fires.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-07-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148380474","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"RDP-YOLO: Reconstruction Difference-Map-Guided YOLO for Indoor Small Flames","authors":"Chunfeng Song,&nbsp;Yan Li,&nbsp;Xueyi Liu","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01954-8","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01954-8","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Indoor small-target fires exhibit minimal flame pixels and weak visual features, making their reliable detection a core challenge for early fire warning systems. This study aims to develop a detection model that achieves an optimal balance between high sensitivity and low computational cost for this critical task. Based on YOLOv8n, we first integrated a self-designed Parallel Convolutional Block Attention Module (ParallelCBAM) into the SPPF structure to enhance tiny flame feature extraction and suppress background interference. Secondly, we devised a Difference-Map-Guided feature enhancement module that leverages image self-reconstruction to amplify the saliency of flame regions. On our self-built dataset, the improved model increased the recall and mAP50 by 2.5% and 1.3%, respectively, over the original YOLOv8n. Evaluations on benchmark datasets showed our model significantly reduces parameters while maintaining competitive accuracy. Compared to other literature models, it holds less parameters with slightly improved precision and mAP50. The results validate the effectiveness and practicality of the proposed method in enhancing the reliability of small-target fire perception and facilitating deployment in real-world applications.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 5","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-06-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148323774","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}