Fire Technology最新文献

{"title":"Flammability and Feasibility Analysis of Mixture Refrigerants Consisting of R1243zf, RE170, and Flame Retardants (R13I1, R134a, or R125)","authors":"Hongfei Guan,&nbsp;Xi Wu,&nbsp;Guanghang Hu,&nbsp;Zudi Ou","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-02014-x","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-02014-x","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Burning velocity is one of the fundamental flammability parameters, and the maximum burning velocity is a crucial criterion of flammability classification of refrigerants. In this study, an experimental system for measuring the burning velocity of low-carbon flammable gases was established based on ISO standard 817. The combustion reactions of mixture refrigerants consisting of R1243zf, RE170 and flame retardants (R13I1, R134a, or R125) were experimentally investigated. In addition, a combustion reaction kinetic model applicable to R1243zf and its mixtures was established, consisting of 178 species and 1442 elementary reactions. The modified kinetic mechanism reproduced the ISO 817 vertical-tube-derived burning-velocity dataset for R1243zf and its mixtures with a mean deviation of 14.5%. This comparison is regarded as a method-specific benchmark rather than a complete validation of the unstretched adiabatic laminar burning velocity. From the perspective of the thermodynamic properties, flammability and global warming potential (GWP), R1243zf/R13I1/R134a and R1243zf/R13I1/R125 revealed the better flexible in composition proportions optimization since which own sizable zones of Class A1 (as per ASHRAE standard 34) and GWP₁₀₀&lt; 150 concurrently. Further, based on theoretical calculations, the performance and coefficient of performance (COP) of 20 representative mixtures were evaluated, and the candidate blend compositions identified through preliminary thermodynamic, environmental, and flammability screening were proposed accordingly to meet the application requirements in an air conditioning system.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-10-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149189387","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"High-Temporal-Resolution Long-Term Prediction Model for Fire Temperature Field of Timber Arch Lounge Bridges Based on Spatiotemporal Attention","authors":"Yuanjiao Fu,&nbsp;Shaocong Xie,&nbsp;Jiexin Shi,&nbsp;Zhiming Fang,&nbsp;Lei Zhuang,&nbsp;Lingzhu Chen","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-02016-9","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-02016-9","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Fires inflict substantial losses of life and property annually, posing a severe threat to global cultural heritage, particularly wooden structures such as timber arch lounge bridges. Timber arch lounge bridges, also known as Chinese covered timber bridges or covered bridges, feature complex fire spread dynamics, which poses a challenge to the accuracy and real-time capability of fire prediction technology. However, existing computational fluid dynamics (CFD) simulation methods, when applied to timber arch lounge bridges, are computationally expensive and impractical for real-time applications. To address these challenges, this study proposed a fire prediction fusion framework with high temporal resolution and long-term forecasting capability based on spatiotemporal attention mechanisms. First, the sparsity prediction module generates a sparse sequence through recurrent iterative operations. Subsequently, the interpolation module interpolates the missing values to form a complete prediction sequence. The fusion framework demonstrated enhanced long-term prediction performance across both timber arch lounge bridge and closed-building layouts compared to the baselines. Moreover, the fusion framework achieves a 36-fold speed increase over conventional CFD methods in timber arch lounge bridge layouts, indicating its performance advantage. While the current model is trained and validated under a specific fire scenario, these results suggest that the proposed framework has the potential to provide a high-accuracy real-time fire prediction method for emergency management and fire-fighting rescue.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-10-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149189386","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Effects of State of Charge on Fire Characteristics and Smoke Spread in 18,650 Lithium-Ion Batteries in a Tunnel","authors":"Tao Li,&nbsp;Xingyu wei,&nbsp;Jiahui Zhao,&nbsp;Yuxin Hou,&nbsp;Jianing Yuan,&nbsp;Xufeng Yang","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-02015-w","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-02015-w","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>In this work, the combustion dynamics and smoke spread behavior of 18,650 lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) with varying states of charge (SOC: 25%–100%) were experimentally investigated in a model-scale tunnel. The results show that the fire evolution of LIBs can be divided into three stages: initial ignition, intermittent combustion characterized by repeated burst combustion and jet-fire events, and combustion decay. SOC strongly influenced the thermal hazard intensity; the peak flame temperature increased with SOC and reached 1081.4 °C at 100% SOC. The smoke movement during LIB fires exhibited several typical stages, including initial plume formation, ceiling impingement and radial diffusion, smoke stratification with longitudinal propagation, and repeated jet-induced smoke accumulation. The intermittent jet-fire behavior generated multiple high-momentum pulses that transferred kinetic energy to the smoke layer and locally re-accelerated the longitudinal spread. A local velocity increase of 14.6%–40.4% was observed between adjacent measuring points, and this short-term re-acceleration was more pronounced at higher SOCs and near the fire source. These results reveal the coupling between SOC, intermittent jet-fire behavior, and smoke spread dynamics, providing useful insights for smoke control and safety management in tunnel fires involving lithium-ion batteries.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-10-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149189325","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"When the Cable Insulation Burns: Experimental and 2D Modeling Study of Cables with Flame-Retardant Sheaths and Flammable Insulation","authors":"Morteza Gholami Haghighi Fard,&nbsp;Simo Hostikka","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-02009-8","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-02009-8","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The integration of flame-retardant (FR) materials into electrical cables mitigates fire hazards; however, the widespread industrial practice of pairing flame-retarded sheaths with non-flame-retarded insulations offers protection only below a critical external heat flux. Beyond this threshold, the sheath’s suppression capacity is exceeded, allowing the insulation to pyrolyze and significantly elevate the fire risk. While non-FR insulations are widely utilized for their dielectric strength, flexibility, durability, and cost-effectiveness, their contribution to fire growth remains a concern and requires further elucidation. Therefore, this study investigates the fire behavior of two industrial cables: MKEM-HF, comprising solely an FR sheath, and XMK-HF, consisting of an FR sheath over a highly flammable insulation, under a heat flux exceeding the sheath capacity to protect the inner insulation layer. Thermogravimetric (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) analyses were conducted to characterize thermal degradation of the cable layers and develop pyrolysis models. Cone calorimetry at 50 <span>(rm kW cdot m^{-2})</span> assessed fire behavior under gasification and flaming, for both single- and multi-cable configurations. MKEM-HF displayed a descending MLR-HRR profile over time, whereas XMK-HF exhibited a continuously rising trend with a dominant final peak, driven by the decomposition of the insulation. A classical 1D slab model of the cone calorimetry was used for inverse estimation of thermal properties and heats of combustion. A geometrical modification on the 1D model allowed the simulation of early insulation exposure, offering a possible approach for modeling the sheath’s mechanical rupture. A more advanced 2D model, accounting for cylindrical geometry and improved boundary coupling, demonstrated superior performance in transient heat transfer and peak prediction compared to the 1D model. The study highlights the critical influence of non-flame-retarded insulation on cable fire behavior and demonstrates the necessity of advanced modeling approaches beyond simple slab approximations to capture these effects.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-10-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-026-02009-8.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149189388","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Data-Driven Selection of Parametric and Travelling Fire Models for Performance-based Fire Design","authors":"Qingfeng Xu,&nbsp;Mohammad Javad Moradi,&nbsp;Hamzeh Hajiloo,&nbsp;Charlie Hopkin,&nbsp;Jun Heng Low,&nbsp;Lee Cunningham,&nbsp;Yong Wang","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-02017-8","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-02017-8","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Selecting appropriate design fire models remains a key unresolved challenge in performance-based structural fire engineering, where the applicability of the Eurocode EN 1991-1-2 parametric fire curve and travelling fire (TF) models is not clearly defined. This study proposes a quantitative threshold for selecting between the EN and TF models based on full-scale experimental results. A total of 222 available full-scale natural fire experiments are summarised and used as benchmark data. For each experiment, average compartment fire temperature–time curves are predicted using the EN and TF models, respectively, and their predictive accuracy is quantitatively assessed to determine the best-performing model for each fire test. A logistic regression (LR) model is then derived from the available dataset to predict the best-performing model for a given set of fire inputs. As the required TF model inputs, namely the peak fire temperature, heat release rate per unit area, and fire spread rate, were not reported in the experimental data, a sensitivity study is conducted to evaluate their influence on the derived LR model. The results show that the LR model is most sensitive to the assumed fire spread rate. Therefore, three applicability segments are introduced into the LR model to cover a wider range of fire scenarios. The proposed LR model achieves an average training accuracy of 0.736 and an ROC–AUC of 0.808. A probabilistic risk assessment case study using Monte Carlo simulation demonstrates that the proposed LR model reduces both over- and under-design compared with EN-only or TF-only methods, providing a more balanced and reliable framework for current performance-based structural fire design.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-10-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-026-02017-8.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149189389","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental study of temperature evolution and flame ejection inside a double-opening enclosure","authors":"Xiang Fang,&nbsp;Yong Yang,&nbsp;Fei Ren,&nbsp;Yajun Huang","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01937-9","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01937-9","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>This article studied the temperature evolution and flame ejection of enclosure fires with the upper and lower openings. Experiments were conducted inside a reduced-scale enclosure with the side length of 0.4 m, which has two openings of the same size, vertically distributed and separated at a distance. Temperature inside the enclosure and flame behavior were recorded for different window sizes, heat release rates and opening separation distances. Result shows that: (1) Temperature inside enclosure rises as total HRR increases, and falls as the opening separation distance increases. This is because air flow rate entering the enclosure increases with the increase of opening separation distance. (2) Critical HRR of ejection rises as the window size increases, and decreases as the increase of opening separation distance. This is because that when the upper opening position is higher, flames are more likely to eject out from the opening after reaching the enclosure top. (3) A normalized separation distance was proposed, which well characterized the effect of separation distance on inside temperature and flame ejection, and the temperature and critical flame ejection were correlated well by the normalized distance. This study for the first time revealed the temperature evolution and flame ejection inside a double-opening enclosure, analyzed the effect of opening separation distance, and proposed the models to quantify the inside temperature and critical HRR for flame ejection, which would make a significant contribution in the theory of building fire dynamics. </p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-10-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149189326","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Meet the Two Organizations that Helped Create Fire Protection Engineering and Why it Still Matters Today","authors":"Alan K. Akers","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01952-w","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01952-w","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-026-01952-w.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149132328","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Improvement Forecasts for Asynchronous Observations in Data-Driven Wildfire Spread Prediction","authors":"Mengxia Zha,&nbsp;Zheng Wang,&nbsp;Jie Ji,&nbsp;Binbin Zhang,&nbsp;Guillermo Rein,&nbsp;Jiping Zhu","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-02007-w","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-02007-w","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Data assimilation (DA) methods enhance the accuracy of prediction models by integrating observational data. Due to the large scale of wildfires, the observed fire perimeter may consist of fire front segments from multiple time points, which are referred to as asynchronous observations. Asynchronous observations contain lag errors that are not accounted for by traditional DA algorithms. This paper proposes an Ensemble Transform Kalman filter incorporating a centralized extrapolation strategy (ETKF-centralized) to reduce the lag error associated with asynchronous fire fronts. To evaluate the performance of ETKF-centralized, a landscape wildfire is simulated using PROMETHEUS to generate asynchronous observations. Since the actual mechanism of wildfire spread cannot be fully captured during prediction, we selected a different model, FARSITE, as a basic prediction model. The results show that the similarity index of ETKF-centralized forecast fire exceeds 0.85 with a lead time of 4 h, and the root mean square error is reduced by 29% compared with standard ETKF. Furthermore, ETKF-centralized is successfully applied to a 900 m² field experiment, demonstrating its strong potential for application in wildfire forecasting.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-09-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149035240","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Study on the Fire Resistance and Scaling Laws of Geometrically Similar CFST Column Under Eccentric Compression","authors":"Liu Jin,&nbsp;Ningbo Fan,&nbsp;Renbo Zhang,&nbsp;Yitao Gao,&nbsp;Xiuli Du","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-02013-y","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-02013-y","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Due to the high cost of full-scale fire tests, researchers often use scaled tests to evaluate the fire resistance of full-scale components. Traditional fire similarity theory requires proportional scaling of the heating curve. Small-scale models need higher heating rates, which are often beyond furnace limits, making scaled tests difficult in practice. To address this challenge, a thermo-mechanical sequential coupling method was developed and validated. A series of geometrically similar concrete-filled steel tubular (CFST) columns were designed. The study investigates the relationship between the fire resistance similarity ratio and the size ratio under the ISO-834 standard fire curve. The effects of eccentricity and load ratio on the fire resistance of geometrically similar CFST columns were also examined. The results show that: (i) The failure mode is independent of size. Axially loaded columns exhibit bulging failure, while in eccentrically loaded columns, the compression zone decreases and the tension zone expands as eccentricity increases; (ii) The fire resistance decreases significantly with increasing eccentricity and load ratio, with stronger effects observed in larger columns; (iii) At small eccentricity or load ratio, the fire resistance is governed by the interaction between the concrete core and steel tube, whereas at large eccentricity or load ratio, it is mainly determined by the steel tube; (iv) An empirical formula considering eccentricity and load ratio is proposed, providing guidance for scaled fire tests of CFST columns.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-09-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149035242","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Advancing Automated Fire Safety Code Compliance: Automatic Annotation of BIM Door Elements","authors":"Soheila Bigdeli,&nbsp;Pieter Pauwels,&nbsp;Steven Verstockt,&nbsp;Nico Van de Weghe,&nbsp;Bart Merci","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-02010-1","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-02010-1","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Automated code compliance checking often faces challenges due to insufficient semantic information in Building Information Modeling (BIM) models, particularly during the early design stages, when only basic geometrical and alphanumerical information may be available. This study extends previous research on machine-learning-based annotation of ‘Exit’ doors by investigating whether additional BIM-derived features and adapted feature-engineering strategies can support the identification of both ‘Exit’ and ‘Apartment Exit’ doors in early-design residential architectural BIM models. A data-driven workflow was developed using features extracted from BIM models containing basic representations of doors, walls, stairs, and rooms, defined by their approximate geometry, dimensions, locations, and element types. For ‘Exit’ door classification, the model achieved an F1-score of 0.97 and produced correct predictions for the three test buildings used in the evaluation. For ‘Apartment Exit’ door classification, the integration of probability-encoded features improved the F1-score from 0.93 to 0.99 and increased the building-level test scores from [0.18, 0.47, 0.89, 1.00] to [0.82, 0.77, 0.95, 1.00] for the four test buildings, respectively. The results indicate that structured geometrical and alphanumerical information available in early-design BIM models can provide useful input for ML-based semantic enrichment of door elements. The main contributions of this study are: (1) the definition of eight BIM-derived spatial and topological features that can be extracted from basic building-element representations; (2) the adaptation of probability-encoded feature engineering to bounded integer-valued features using neighbor-based mean estimation for unseen values; and (3) the extension of the door-annotation workflow from ‘Exit’ to ‘Apartment Exit’ classification in Belgian high-rise buildings. The proposed approach is intended to support early-stage compliance checking by reducing the need for manual semantic annotation, while further validation on more diverse building datasets is required to assess broader generalizability.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-09-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"149132975","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}