Fire Technology最新文献

{"title":"Probabilistic Performance-based Fire Design of Structures: A Hazard-Centred and Consequence-Oriented Perspective","authors":"Andrea Franchini,&nbsp;Carmine Galasso,&nbsp;Jose L. Torero","doi":"10.1007/s10694-023-01541-1","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-023-01541-1","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Risk-based design and assessment methods are gaining popularity in performance-based structural fire engineering. These methods usually start by defining a set of hazard scenarios to use as analysis inputs. This approach, proven highly effective for other hazard types such as earthquakes, may not be optimal for fire safety design. Indeed, the strong coupling between the fire phenomenon and structural features enables an ad-hoc design variable selection (and/or optimisation) to reduce fire intensity, making fire scenarios additional design outputs. In addition, such a coupling effect implies that fire scenarios maximising consequences are structure specific. Building on these considerations, this paper discusses the limitations that arise at different analysis steps (i.e., fire-scenario and intensity treatment, identifying fire intensity measures, probabilistic fire hazard analysis, developing fire fragility models, and risk calculation) when using conventional risk-based approaches for design purposes. Furthermore, it compares such approaches with a fire safety design methodology (the Consequence-oriented Fire intensity Optimisation, CFO, approach) that addresses the identified limitations. The potential benefits of integrating the two approaches are also discussed. Finally, the fire design of a simplified steel-girder bridge is introduced as an illustrative example, comparing the consequence metrics and design updating strategies resulting from the two approaches.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"60 4","pages":"2845 - 2873"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2024-05-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-023-01541-1.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140927683","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Simplified Method for Determining Fire Resistance of RC Columns Using Fire-Resistance-Column-Curves Approach","authors":"Khaled Ahmed Mahmoud","doi":"10.1007/s10694-024-01567-z","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-024-01567-z","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Eurocode-2 (EC2) empirical equation for fire resistance of RC columns is very sensitive to the value of column capacity at normal temperature conditions <span>(N_{Rd})</span>. Techniques to determine <span>(N_{Rd})</span> accurately for eccentric slender columns are difficult and computationally demanding; thus, adopting simplifications leads to unsatisfactory results in many column cases. Another shortcoming of EC2 equation is that it does not include an explicit term regarding the effect of load eccentricity on fire resistance. In this paper, a simplified method, as an attempt to overcome EC2 method defects, is developed to determine the fire resistance of RC columns using fire-resistance-column-curves. A rational numerical model is used to analyze various series of RC columns with different geometric, material, and loading properties at elevated temperatures. The results of the numerical study are utilized to construct different fire-resistance-column-curves from which simplified design equations are developed to predict the fire resistance of fixed- and pinned-end RC columns. The validity of the method is established with the aid of experimental data and it was found that in most cases, there is good agreement between assessed and test columns. It was also found that the proposed equations provide sufficiently safe predictions when appropriate material safety factors are adopted. The applicability of the proposed method to fire resistance design of RC columns is illustrated through numerical examples.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"60 5","pages":"3443 - 3474"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2024-05-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-024-01567-z.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140886212","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Full-Scale Fire Experiments on Cross-Laminated Timber Residential Enclosures Featuring Different Lining Protection Configurations","authors":"Danny Hopkin,&nbsp;Wojciech Węgrzyński,&nbsp;Carmen Gorska,&nbsp;Michael Spearpoint,&nbsp;Jakub Bielawski,&nbsp;Harald Krenn,&nbsp;Tim Sleik,&nbsp;Renaud Blondeau,&nbsp;Gordian Stapf","doi":"10.1007/s10694-024-01581-1","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-024-01581-1","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The adoption of timber, specifically cross-laminated timber (CLT), as a primary construction material is gaining traction due to its carbon sequestration capabilities, environmental advantages, and potential for precision manufacturing. However, the combustibility of wood raises legitimate concerns about fire safety in timber-based residential buildings. This paper investigates the fire performance of timber in a residential context, attempting to fill knowledge gaps and outline strategies for improving fire robustness in timber-built dwellings. Through comprehensive experimental studies on residential-type enclosures constructed with CLT panels, this research explores different configurations and the effects of varying degrees of non-combustible protective lining. The findings underscore the significance of considering timber surface exposure and adopting effective encapsulation strategies in CLT buildings. It has been estimated that the exposure of timber walls leads to a proportional increase in heat release rate, corresponding to the area of exposed timber surfaces and their charring rates. Consequently, the external flame has a larger projection, resulting in a much greater heat flux to the façade. Furthermore, threshold conditions for initial flaming self-extinguishment of timber defined in literature of 44.5 ± 1.2 kW/m² have been found to be applicable to the experiments conducted in this research. Finally, it has been observed that partial encapsulation, where the protective lining will likely fall off during a fire, may hinder rather than increase the likelihood of self-extinguishment. This work contributes towards a nuanced understanding of fire dynamics in timber structures, offering insights for safer and more effective design strategies for CLT-based construction.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"60 6","pages":"3771 - 3803"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2024-05-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-024-01581-1.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140886126","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Understanding the Impact of Fuel on Surfactant Microstructure of Firefighting Foam","authors":"Rezawana Islam,&nbsp;Brian Y. Lattimer","doi":"10.1007/s10694-024-01577-x","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-024-01577-x","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Aqueous film-forming foam is being phased out due to the environmental impacts of fluorinated surfactants contained in the firefighting foams. To develop an environmentally friendly firefighting foam, it is important to understand the factors controlling the firefighting performance of surfactants. Fuel transport through foam has been considered as a dominant mechanism for foam collapse. Therefore, the impact of fuels (heptane, octane and trimethylbenzene (TMB)) on surfactant microstructure was studied for three different types of surfactants (Capstone, Glucopon, and siloxane) that have applications in firefighting foam. Multiple techniques were used to identify the microstructure and interfacial properties of surfactants with and without exposure to liquid fuel. The ignition time of fuel vapor through foam and solubility of fuel through liquid surfactant solution were measured as well. This work shows fuel solubility has an impact on the surfactant microstructure and interfacial properties. In addition, fuel solubility and vapor pressure affect the ignition time of fuel vapors.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"60 5","pages":"3413 - 3441"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2024-05-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-024-01577-x.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140841340","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Special Issue on State-of-the-Art Fire Research in China and 30th Anniversary of SKLFS","authors":"Naian Liu,&nbsp;Kaiyuan Li,&nbsp;Xinyan Huang","doi":"10.1007/s10694-024-01579-9","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-024-01579-9","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"60 2","pages":"701 - 709"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2024-04-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140637011","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Fire Safety for Green Façades: Part 1: Basics, State-of-the-Art Research and Experimental Investigation of Plant Flammability","authors":"Thomas Engel,&nbsp;Norman Werther","doi":"10.1007/s10694-024-01566-0","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-024-01566-0","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>This study is the first part of a larger investigation into the fire behaviour of green façades. In this study, the currently known international research status on this topic is presented and discussed. In addition, the flammability of green façades is investigated through 43 fire tests on a medium scale according to the SBI (Single Burning Item) test method EN 13823. The focus of the investigation was placed on climbing plants. A total of 25 different plant species were investigated. A comparison of the heat release rate of all the investigated vital plants shows similar behaviour. In the course of exposure, there are short peaks in the heat release rate. These peaks are “flare-ups” that occur when parts of the plants dry out due to exposure to the flame and then ignite. The plant species itself had no substantial influence on fire behaviour. Horizontal fire spread occurred to a very limited extent within the investigations of vital plants. They were self-extinguishing. The significant factor in the assessment of flammability is the moisture content of the plants. With dried plants, an abrupt heat release occurs at the beginning. Dried-out plants, as well as unmaintained plants with a high content of deadwood, represent the most critical case.</p><h3>Graphical Abstract</h3><div><figure><div><div><picture><source><img></source></picture></div></div></figure></div></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"60 3","pages":"2177 - 2230"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2024-04-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-024-01566-0.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140637048","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Chemical and Thermal Exposure Risks in a Multi Compartment Training Structure","authors":"Gavin P. Horn,&nbsp;Keith Stakes,&nbsp;Danielle L. Neumann,&nbsp;Joseph M. Willi,&nbsp;Ryan Chaffer,&nbsp;Craig Weinschenk,&nbsp;Kenneth W. Fent","doi":"10.1007/s10694-024-01578-w","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-024-01578-w","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Providing NFPA 1403 compliant live-fire training can present thermal and chemical exposure risk to instructors and students. To reduce risk, training academies, fire departments, instructors, and standards setting technical committees need more information on how different training fuels used in common training structures can impact the environment in which firefighter training occurs. This study utilized a traditional concrete training structure with multiple compartments to characterize training environments with three different fuel package materials [i.e., low density wood fiberboard, oriented strand board (OSB), and wood pallets]. Exposure risks for a fire instructor located on either the first or second floor were characterized using measurements of heat flux, air temperature and airborne concentrations of several contaminants including known, probable, or possible carcinogens. It was hypothesized that utilizing a training fuel package with solid wood pallets would result in lower concentrations of these airborne contaminants [aldehydes, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs)] than wood-based sheet goods containing additional resins and/or waxes. Additionally, it was hypothesized that these concentrations would be lower than in the single compartment Fire Behavior Lab presented in a companion manuscript. For all measured compounds other than hydrochloric acid, airborne concentrations were 10 to 100 times lower than in the Fire Behavior Lab. OSB-fueled fires produced the highest median concentrations of total PAHs and VOCs such as benzene, while the pallet fuel package produced the lowest median concentrations of these compounds. These trends generally followed the qualitative visual obscuration created by each fuel. Additional tests were conducted on the OSB-fueled fires with increased ventilation and an alternate means of reducing visibility through smoldering smoke barrels. This OSB experiment with increased ventilation resulted in the highest temperatures in the fire room but the lowest impact on visibility throughout the structure, as well as the lowest overall concentrations of contaminants in this study. In contrast, the smoldering straw-filled smoke barrel created a highly obscured environment (with minimal impact on thermal environment) and some of the highest concentrations of the targeted contaminants of any test. These data may be useful in balancing obscuration for training with potential exposure to thermal stressors and contaminants.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"60 5","pages":"3379 - 3411"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2024-04-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-024-01578-w.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140637105","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Systematic Review and Bibliometric Analysis of Electrical Fires from 1993 to 2022","authors":"Hong Meng,&nbsp;Lei Xiao,&nbsp;Cunwei Zhang,&nbsp;Tianwei Zhang,&nbsp;Dengyou Xia,&nbsp;Wenyang Dong","doi":"10.1007/s10694-024-01580-2","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-024-01580-2","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>In recent years, electrical fires, which constitute the majority of fire incidents, have become a significant concern. This paper presents a quantitative evaluation of the research on electrical fires from 1993 to 2022, using literature measurement and visual analysis techniques. A total of 2915 publications were collected from the Web of Science database to review and analyze the research progress on electrical fires. In this investigation, the quantitative distribution of literature by year as well as the distributions of main source journals, countries and regions, institutions, and discipline categories were analyzed. Additionally, research hotspots were identified and the knowledge field was mapped using VOSviewer. The results indicated an exponential growth in the number of publications on electrical fires, with Ceramics International emerging as the most prolific journal, having published 79 papers and accounting for 2.5% of the total research. The most active countries in electrical fire research were found to be China, the United States, South Korea, India, Germany, France, and the United Kingdom, with Chinese publications having the most significant impact. The University of Science and Technology of China, Chinese Academy of Sciences, and Tsinghua University are the most productive institutions in the field of electrical fire research; their main research directions include electrical structure, electrical experiment simulation, insulating materials, battery fires, fire extinguishing technology, and detection methods. Further, we observed that the scope of research on electrical fires has expanded from the macro to micro level. Thematic analysis conducted in the last decade has revealed that battery fires and equipment materials have emerged as the primary focus of research in this field. These research findings offer a comprehensive overview of the evolution of research hotspots, which can assist researchers in quickly grasping the research frontiers as well as the overall situation.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"60 5","pages":"3347 - 3377"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2024-04-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140578196","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Analytical Model for Non-linear (user2{M - },,{varvec{theta}}) Relationships of Dowel-Type Timber Connections Exposed to Fire","authors":"Yukito Nakayama,&nbsp;Takayuki Kikuchi,&nbsp;Marina Totsuka,&nbsp;Takeo Hirashima","doi":"10.1007/s10694-024-01546-4","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-024-01546-4","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Recent experimental evidence has shown that wood–steel–wood dowel-type connections exhibit a semi-rigid behaviour even after 90 min of fire exposure. Because a semi-rigid behaviour influences the bending moment distribution among structural members, considering the moment–rotation relationships within frame analyses in which structural members are modelled as beam elements can enable a realistic fire response analysis that is significantly simpler than the three-dimensional finite element method. This study proposes an analytical methodology that accounts for the thermo-mechanical behaviour of timber and dowels, enabling the simulation of the non-linear moment–rotation relationships under fire conditions. The proposed analytical model divides dowels into a series of elements on an elastoplastic foundation and performs a direct stiffness method in a time-incremental procedure using an element stiffness matrix derived from beam-on-elastic-foundation theory. This study also presents the results of load-carrying tests on timber frames with dowel-type connections performed under ambient and fire conditions. The analytical results were consistent with the fire test results. Additionally, the analyses were also performed under three conditions in which the dowels were rigid, linear elastic, and elastoplastic bodies. These three results converged to the same value after 65 min of heating, which suggests that the ultimate states of beams with dowel-type connections exposed to fire can be modelled by assuming that dowels are rigid bodies.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"60 4","pages":"2675 - 2718"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2024-04-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-024-01546-4.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140577895","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evaluating 900 Potentially Harming Fires in Germany: Is the Prescriptive Building Code Effective? German Fire Departments Assessed Fire Safety Measures in Buildings Through On-Site Inspections","authors":"Björn Maiworm,&nbsp;Moritz Göldner,&nbsp;Kilian Mannl,&nbsp;Claudius Hammann","doi":"10.1007/s10694-024-01560-6","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-024-01560-6","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Fire statistics mirror the outcome of fire prevention. Most fire statistics in Germany deal with the loss of life, value, and fire department actions (number of interventions, nozzles used, or alarm category like a false alarm). However, these results also represent the safety level the legislator has set through the prescriptive building regulations. The current statistics cannot evaluate the level of fire safety and the fulfillment or necessity of fire safety precautions. Today, expert judgment from firefighters is necessary to fill this gap. Here, we show the first evaluation of fire prevention and hazard protection measures by evaluating 900 potentially harming fires throughout Germany. In contrast to minor fires, these fires have advanced to the extent that they could potentially violate the protection objectives outlined in building regulations. The fire department association developed a questionnaire to evaluate the fire safety level and possibly reduce unnecessary fire safety regulations. One hundred twenty-three fire departments carried out the questionnaire, which are responsible for 25% of the German population. Fire prevention officers of the fire departments went to the scene after the fire was extinguished, and the fire safety concept of the building could be evaluated. We found a high rate of injuries, smoke spread, need for rescue by firefighters, and higher than expected firefighter response times after arrival at the scene. Surprisingly, smoke spread rates correlated with building height and not with building age. It was even possible to assess the risk of multiple casualties. Overall, the questionnaire results give insight into the current level of fire safety in existing buildings. Ways and rates for smoke and fire spread prove the importance of second escape routes and the influence of human misconduct. According to these results, current building code regulations are sufficient to prevent fire spread. On the other hand, smoke spreading is a severe threat to people’s safety. For example, the data shown can be applied in Bayes nets or other risk calculations to optimize individual building designs or even governmental building codes concerning fire safety engineering. Based on our observations, science, and building codes, authorities could in the future establish a performance-based building code instead of the current prescriptive code. This paper presents the first approach in Germany to quantify the expert judgment of fire departments and use it as a source of knowledge for fire prevention.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"60 3","pages":"2041 - 2065"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2024-04-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-024-01560-6.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140577921","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}