Earth and Space Science最新文献

{"title":"An Operational Daily-Filtered Dominion Radio Astrophysical Observatory F10.7 cm Solar Radio Flux Product","authors":"C. Kuester,&nbsp;O. M. Coddington,&nbsp;C. Lindholm,&nbsp;C. L. Peck","doi":"10.1029/2025EA004854","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2025EA004854","url":null,"abstract":"<p>The F10.7 solar radio flux density, or F10.7, is a disk-integrated measure of the Sun's total emission at 10.7 cm (2.8 GHz) and is a widely-used proxy of solar activity. F10.7 emissions primarily originate from the Sun's upper chromosphere and lower corona. High-frequency, transient “radio bursts” can dramatically increase the magnitude of F10.7 emission over seconds-to-minutes timescales relative to the slower changes at daily and longer timescales attributed to active region variations during the solar cycle. Accordingly, it follows that applications using F10.7 as a proxy for the broad solar activity level could benefit from a daily F10.7 record that excludes burst events. One representative application is the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) National Centers for Environmental Information (NCEI) Solar Irradiance Climate Data Record (CDR) that uses F10.7 to estimate the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) component (&lt;115 nm) of an operational daily solar spectral irradiance (SSI) record. For the NOAA/NCEI CDR, the definitive source of F10.7 emission is the National Research Council of Canada observations made up to three times per day from, in recent years, the Dominion Radio Astrophysics Observatory (DRAO) near Penticton, British Columbia. In this work, we describe a new operational algorithm to produce a single, near-noon, and ideally burst-free daily F10.7 value from the DRAO observations. The data product extends since 1947 and is updated daily. We evaluate the algorithm's performance by comparing the output to direct F10.7 observations, to independent filtering approaches and F10.7 models, and to other solar activity proxies.</p>","PeriodicalId":54286,"journal":{"name":"Earth and Space Science","volume":"13 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-09-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2025EA004854","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148942549","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Quasi 6-Day Wave Variability in the Thermosphere and Ionosphere: Observations and Modeling","authors":"Oluwafisayo P. Owolabi,&nbsp;Scott L. England,&nbsp;Yen-Jung Wu","doi":"10.1029/2026EA005218","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2026EA005218","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Satellite observations of the upper mesosphere and lower thermosphere from TIMED-SABER and ICON-MIGHTI reveal a clear Quasi 6-Day Wave (Q6DW) event in the winds and temperatures in this region. This Q6DW event persists across multiple data sets throughout the middle-to-upper thermosphere and the F-region ionosphere, including GOLD disk temperature (TDisk) and column O/N₂ ratio (ΣO/N₂), ICON-MIGHTI winds and airglow, and COSMIC-2 electron density observations. Q6DW signatures in GOLD TDisk and ΣO/N₂ as well as altitude-resolved visible airglow emission are identified for the first time. Comparison with SD-WACCM-X model reveals that this event is reasonably well captured in most parameters. E-region dynamo effects, modified winds at F-region altitudes, and changes in thermospheric O/N₂ impacting ion density are the likely mechanisms for these Q6DW signatures in the F-region ionosphere. The ΣO/N₂ composition changes could be creating one-third of the observed Q6DW changes in the F-region electron density at mid latitudes. Through comparison with GLOW (driven with Q6DW perturbations from SD-WACCM-X simulations), it is shown that GLOW reproduces the observed Q6DW visible airglow signatures in the lower and upper thermosphere but cannot account for those in the middle thermosphere near 130 km altitude.</p>","PeriodicalId":54286,"journal":{"name":"Earth and Space Science","volume":"13 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-09-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2026EA005218","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148942550","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Sensitivity Analysis of Flick-AccuRT, a Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Radiative Transfer Model and Input Module","authors":"Shea Cheatham,&nbsp;Daniel Koestner,&nbsp;Børge Hamre","doi":"10.1029/2026EA005030","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2026EA005030","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Radiative transfer (RT) models typically solve the radiative transfer equation separately in either the atmosphere or the ocean, limiting accuracy across the atmosphere-ocean interface. Here, we employ a coupled scalar discrete ordinate RT model to examine methods for the input of measured inherent optical properties (IOPs) of oceanic constituents, including the volume scattering function (VSF), and assess the impact of VSF approximations via Legendre polynomial expansion on accuracy of model calculations. Further sensitivity analyses are performed to identify efficient internal parameter choices for discrete ordinate RT models, including number of streams needed for precise radiometric outputs. We additionally examine coupling effects across the atmosphere-ocean interface, showing that changes in remote sensing reflectance caused by solar zenith angle and cloud cover also depend on the IOPs of the water column; that is, that water constituent composition influences the angular and spectral distribution of radiation entering the ocean. This variable response of radiometric quantities to atmospheric conditions depending on water column constituents has implications for algorithms that retrieve biogeochemical variables, such as chlorophyll-<i>a</i>. Finally, validation of the coupled-model outputs against radiometric measurements demonstrate accuracy and computational efficiency for applications in ocean color science, which predominately fall within 10% relative root mean square error when comparing both satellite and in situ measurements with simulations.</p>","PeriodicalId":54286,"journal":{"name":"Earth and Space Science","volume":"13 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-09-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2026EA005030","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148942326","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Geophysical Investigation of a Thermal Field in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates","authors":"Hakim Saibi,&nbsp;Mohammed Y. Ali,&nbsp;Ahmed Abdelmaksoud,&nbsp;Biruk Abera Cherkose","doi":"10.1029/2025EA004240","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2025EA004240","url":null,"abstract":"<p>In the Abu Dhabi Emirate, near Madinat Zayed and Liwa, studies have identified high geothermal gradients and high-heat-flow areas. Assessing the geothermal potential in this region requires a detailed mapping of subsurface geological formations and their thermal properties. This study employed broadband magnetotelluric (BBMT) measurements to map the geological formations, focusing on the basement rock structures linked to the high-heat-flow anomaly observed in the area. The three-dimensional inversion of BBMT data revealed a high-resistivity anomaly at 10 km depth beneath a highly conductive Quaternary sediment layer in the high-heat-flow area. This high-resistivity layer is interpreted as basement rocks. To interpret the MT model, gravity, magnetic, seismic, and heat flow data were used, and a two-dimensional gravity-magnetic model was constructed along the BBMT profile. The high-heat-flow anomaly in the study area is interpreted as due to the existence of highly magnetized basement rocks.</p>","PeriodicalId":54286,"journal":{"name":"Earth and Space Science","volume":"13 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-09-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2025EA004240","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148942303","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Framework for Modeling Aerosol-Cloud-Lightning Interactions: Validation of Charge Structure and Aerosol Effects","authors":"Weishan Wang,&nbsp;Guoxing Chen,&nbsp;Yijun Zhang,&nbsp;Jen-Ping Chen,&nbsp;Dong Zheng,&nbsp;Liangtao Xu,&nbsp;Chuanhong Zhao","doi":"10.1029/2026EA005196","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2026EA005196","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This study develops a novel framework within the Weather Research and Forecast Model for modeling aerosol-cloud-lightning interactions. The framework explicitly represent aerosol-cloud interactions by prescribing aerosols with two configurations: an idealized setup, where both cloud condensation nuclei (CCN) and ice nucleating particles (IN) are assumed to have a single chemical composition and spatially uniform distributions; and a quasi-realistic configuration, with multi-species aerosols assigned spatially varying distributions, where hygroscopic components act as CCN, dust particles act as IN, and all aerosol species influence radiative transfer. Cloud microphysics is coupled with detailed charge-to-discharge processes to simulate lightning. The framework is evaluated using two thunderstorms in Guangdong, China. For an isolated storm, the model reproduces a tripolar charge structure similar to observations, demonstrating its capability in simulating electrification. For a frontal storm, the model reproduces the observed precipitation, and lightning is broadly simulated in the correct regions of the storm but substantially underestimated. This requires further investigation. The results further show that increasing CCN concentration suppresses rainfall while enhancing lightning. Higher CCN concentrations produce more numerous but smaller cloud droplets, which suppresses the coalescence into rain, allows more droplets to loft into the upper level, and forms more but smaller cloud ice particles. This boosts graupel-ice collisions, intensifies non-inductive charging, strengthens the upper positive charge and the vertical electric-field gradient, ultimately increasing the lightning frequency. In contrast, no significant aerosol-induced updraft invigoration is observed. These results suggest that microphysical effects may dominate the dynamical invigoration effect in aerosol modulating thunderstorm electrification and lightning.</p>","PeriodicalId":54286,"journal":{"name":"Earth and Space Science","volume":"13 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-09-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2026EA005196","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148942297","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"First Observational Results of the Neutral Gas Mass Spectrometer Onboard the China's TianMu-1 Constellation","authors":"Jiangzhao Ai,&nbsp;Yongping Li,&nbsp;Xianguo Zhang,&nbsp;Yueqiang Sun,&nbsp;Hong Zeng,&nbsp;Weihua Bai,&nbsp;Hongbo Wang,&nbsp;Xiaoliang Zheng,&nbsp;Jia Li,&nbsp;Yujie Wang,&nbsp;Yuanyuan Cao,&nbsp;Xinchun Tang","doi":"10.1029/2026EA005176","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2026EA005176","url":null,"abstract":"<p>In situ observations of thermospheric composition have long been scarce, limiting our understanding of the upper atmosphere and its response to space weather. This study focuses on the Neutral Gas Mass Spectrometer (NGMS) onboard the TM19 and TM20 satellites of China's TianMu-1 constellation, presenting the first systematic elaboration of its core technical characteristics and novel in situ observational results of O and N₂ number densities. During the 10–12 October 2024 geomagnetic storm, the ratio of O to N₂ number densities (O/N₂) decreased significantly at mid-high latitudes, owing to the stronger enhancement of N₂ compared with O. N₂ perturbations were confined to latitudes above ∼±30° in both hemispheres, whereas O perturbations exhibited a global latitudinal distribution, likely reflecting that heavy N₂ is locally enhanced by upwelling and decays equatorward via diffusion, while O is transported globally by storm-time circulation and waves. Additionally, the O/N₂ observations from TM19 and TM20 showed high cross-satellite response consistency with a correlation coefficient of 0.89, while the MSIS 2.0 model systematically overestimated the O/N₂ under geomagnetically quiet conditions. The NGMS onboard TianMu-1 provides crucial data support for optimizing atmospheric models.</p>","PeriodicalId":54286,"journal":{"name":"Earth and Space Science","volume":"13 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-09-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2026EA005176","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148942148","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Metric for Quantifying Spatial Heterogeneity in Gridded Atmospheric Fields","authors":"M. Mohebalhojeh,&nbsp;S. Frederick,&nbsp;N. Riemer,&nbsp;M. West","doi":"10.1029/2025EA004983","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2025EA004983","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Spatial heterogeneity influences many nonlinear atmospheric processes but it is often described qualitatively or with simple statistical measures that do not capture spatial organization. We introduce a mixing-oriented metric for gridded fields based on the expected deviation of subdomain means from the global average. This metric captures a multiscale aspect of spatial organization and can be normalized for comparisons across fields or scenarios. We apply it to idealized spatial patterns, real emission inventories, and a set of large-eddy simulations of aerosol coagulation with identical initial total particle numbers but varying spatial configurations. For these idealized coagulation simulations, larger initial metric values are associated with faster coagulation and lower final number concentrations, consistent with theoretical expectations for clustered particle fields. The metric provides a quantitative framework for comparing departures from spatial uniformity in model fields and for interpreting how spatial organization may influence nonlinear processes. This approach can support more systematic assessments of spatial heterogeneity in aerosol modeling and other applications involving gridded atmospheric data.</p>","PeriodicalId":54286,"journal":{"name":"Earth and Space Science","volume":"13 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2025EA004983","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148942076","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A Solar Analog Model for Decrease in Far Ultraviolet Irradiance Under a Grand Minimum","authors":"D. Lubin,&nbsp;C. Melis,&nbsp;D. Tytler","doi":"10.1029/2025EA004996","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2025EA004996","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Solar analog field stars having a range of magnetic activity can provide an estimate of solar spectral irradiance (SSI) variability relevant to understanding the Sun's influence on terrestrial climate. This approach is particularly useful for far ultraviolet (FUV) irradiance that cannot be observed from the Earth surface. The International Ultraviolet Explorer (IUE) made numerous observations of Sun-like stars between 1978 and 1996. Using Gaia parallax data, we identified 53 stars observed by IUE as cool main sequence stars similar to the Sun and having measurements of magnetic activity ranging from very active to very inactive analogous to a grand minimum. From these observations we estimate the decrease in FUV SSI from a typical solar cycle minimum to a grand minimum analogous to the historical Maunder minimum, in eight spectral bands between 125 and 198 nm. While the shortest wavelength band has a large uncertainty in the estimate, we find that from a typical solar cycle minimum to a grand minimum the irradiance difference varies from 5.3% to 19.3% as wavelength decreases from 195 to 135 nm. Our corresponding IUE-based estimate from a representative solar maximum to solar minimum is consistent with NASA Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) Solar-Stellar Irradiance Comparison Experiment (SOLSTICE) observations, for wavelengths longer than 135 nm. These results provide motivation for potential future surveys with more current space-based instruments and can also help constrain climate data records.</p>","PeriodicalId":54286,"journal":{"name":"Earth and Space Science","volume":"13 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2025EA004996","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148942039","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Sensitivity of the Martian Magnetotail to Model Configuration Choices in Multispecies MHD Simulations","authors":"Nii-Boi A. Quartey,&nbsp;Michael W. Liemohn,&nbsp;Wenyi Sun,&nbsp;Yingjuan Ma","doi":"10.1029/2026EA005147","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2026EA005147","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Numerical modeling has been a key component in the study of the Mars space environment, providing a comprehensive global representation that is not always easy to obtain in spacecraft measurements. However, there are inconsistencies in data-model and model-model comparisons, regardless of whether the simulation conditions are identical or idealized. We conduct a multispecies MHD case study using a baseline configuration of standard settings, modifying one parameter at a time to examine how the inputs change the structure of the Mars magnetotail current sheet. A total of nine parameters are changed, and our results examine the differences in the magnetic field and total current density. Notable discrepancies in the case study include the grid structure and grid resolution. The use of a generalized or logarithmic grid changes the strength and bifurcation of the magnetotail current sheet. High radial and angular resolution causes the magnetotail current sheet to fluctuate, but including it in simulations allows users to also implement inner boundary and global refinement in the simulation. The baseline configuration established in this investigation will serve as a foundation for future preliminary data-model comparison with MAVEN observations.</p>","PeriodicalId":54286,"journal":{"name":"Earth and Space Science","volume":"13 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-08-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2026EA005147","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148943665","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Biases and Uncertainties in Radiosonde-Based Precipitable Water Vapor","authors":"António P. Ferreira,&nbsp;Cesar Azorin-Molina,&nbsp;Luis Gimeno","doi":"10.1029/2026EA005075","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1029/2026EA005075","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;p&gt;Precipitable water vapor (PWV) plays an important role in weather and climate phenomena. Accurate PWV measurements based on radiosonde observations are essential for assessing remote-sensing measurements and long-term trends. This study examines the performance of PWV algorithms, including their intrinsic biases and their sensitivity to radiosonde and data-reporting errors. It is found that approximating gravity by standard gravity and simultaniously ignoring the water-vapor enhancement factor in air underestimates PWV by about 0.3% at the poles, 0.5% at 45° latitude, and 0.8% at the equator. In addition, air temperature encoding in alphanumeric upper-air reports causes an underestimation of around 0.4%. Error propagation analysis shows that, under typical mid-latitude conditions: vertically constant relative humidity (RH), temperature and pressure biases &lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;math&gt;\u0000 &lt;semantics&gt;\u0000 &lt;mrow&gt;\u0000 &lt;msub&gt;\u0000 &lt;mi&gt;ε&lt;/mi&gt;\u0000 &lt;mi&gt;U&lt;/mi&gt;\u0000 &lt;/msub&gt;\u0000 &lt;/mrow&gt;\u0000 &lt;annotation&gt; ${varepsilon }_{mathrm{U}}$&lt;/annotation&gt;\u0000 &lt;/semantics&gt;&lt;/math&gt; (%), &lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;math&gt;\u0000 &lt;semantics&gt;\u0000 &lt;mrow&gt;\u0000 &lt;msub&gt;\u0000 &lt;mi&gt;ε&lt;/mi&gt;\u0000 &lt;mi&gt;T&lt;/mi&gt;\u0000 &lt;/msub&gt;\u0000 &lt;/mrow&gt;\u0000 &lt;annotation&gt; ${varepsilon }_{mathrm{T}}$&lt;/annotation&gt;\u0000 &lt;/semantics&gt;&lt;/math&gt; (K) and &lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;math&gt;\u0000 &lt;semantics&gt;\u0000 &lt;mrow&gt;\u0000 &lt;msub&gt;\u0000 &lt;mi&gt;ε&lt;/mi&gt;\u0000 &lt;mi&gt;P&lt;/mi&gt;\u0000 &lt;/msub&gt;\u0000 &lt;/mrow&gt;\u0000 &lt;annotation&gt; ${varepsilon }_{mathrm{P}}$&lt;/annotation&gt;\u0000 &lt;/semantics&gt;&lt;/math&gt; (hPa), produce a percent PWV bias &lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;math&gt;\u0000 &lt;semantics&gt;\u0000 &lt;mrow&gt;\u0000 &lt;mo&gt;≈&lt;/mo&gt;\u0000 &lt;mn&gt;1.7&lt;/mn&gt;\u0000 &lt;mspace&gt;&lt;/mspace&gt;\u0000 &lt;msub&gt;\u0000 &lt;mi&gt;ε&lt;/mi&gt;\u0000 &lt;mi&gt;U&lt;/mi&gt;\u0000 &lt;/msub&gt;\u0000 &lt;mo&gt;+&lt;/mo&gt;\u0000 &lt;msub&gt;\u0000 &lt;mrow&gt;\u0000 &lt;mn&gt;7.1&lt;/mn&gt;\u0000 &lt;mspace&gt;&lt;/mspace&gt;\u0000 &lt;mi&gt;ε&lt;/mi&gt;\u0000 &lt;/mrow&gt;\u0000 &lt;mi&gt;T&lt;/mi&gt;\u0000 &lt;/msub&gt;\u0000 &lt;mo&gt;−&lt;/mo&gt;\u0000 &lt;mn&gt;0.6&lt;/mn&gt;\u0000 &lt;mspace&gt;&lt;/mspace&gt;\u0000 &lt;msub&gt;\u0000 &lt;mi&gt;ε&lt;/mi&gt;\u0000 &lt;mi&gt;P&lt;/mi&gt;\u0000 &lt;/msub&gt;\u0000 &lt;/mrow&gt;\u0000 &lt;annotation&gt; $mathit{approx }1.7,{varepsilon }_{mathrm{U}}+{7.1,varepsilon }_{mathrm{T}}-0.6,{varepsilon }_{mathrm{P}}$&lt;/annotation&gt;\u0000 &lt;/semantics&gt;&lt;/math&gt;; sonde errors &lt;span&gt;&lt;/span&gt;&lt;","PeriodicalId":54286,"journal":{"name":"Earth and Space Science","volume":"13 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.3,"publicationDate":"2026-08-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1029/2026EA005075","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148943605","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}