Developmental Science最新文献

{"title":"Which Aspects of Parenting Predict the Development of Empathic Concern During Infancy?","authors":"Tal Orlitsky,&nbsp;Maayan Davidov,&nbsp;Yael Paz,&nbsp;Ronit Roth-Hanania,&nbsp;Maia Ram Berger,&nbsp;Lital Yizhar,&nbsp;Liad Shiller,&nbsp;Carolyn Zahn-Waxler","doi":"10.1111/desc.13566","DOIUrl":"10.1111/desc.13566","url":null,"abstract":"<p>This study examined which parenting behaviors predict the development of infants’ empathic concern for others in distress. We distinguished between three forms of sensitive/responsive parenting: mothers' responsiveness to infant distress, their responsiveness to the infant's nondistress cues, and maternal expression of positive affect and affection in nondistress. Although in prior work these parenting behaviors were frequently combined, or subsumed under a single global construct, such as “sensitive responsiveness”, the three forms of parenting are theoretically distinct. We hypothesized that once all three were examined simultaneously, only responsiveness to distress would emerge as a unique predictor of empathy. A sample of 165 Israeli infants (50% girls) was assessed from 3 to 18 months. Parenting measures were coded from mother–infant interactions at 3 and 6 months, and infants’ empathic concern was assessed using three distressed stimuli at ages 3, 6, 12, and 18 months. Path analysis models revealed that, consistent with the hypothesis, only responsiveness to distress uniquely predicted infants' subsequent empathic concern, over and above the other forms of parenting and preexisting empathy levels; conversely, being responsive or affectionate when infants were not distressed did not predict their empathic abilities. The findings underscore the importance of differentiating between theoretically distinct forms of parenting, even when they are correlated. The discussion addresses the role of responsiveness to infants’ distress in the early development of empathic capacity, and highlights avenues for future research.</p>","PeriodicalId":48392,"journal":{"name":"Developmental Science","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2024-10-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/desc.13566","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142394327","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Children's Selective Teaching and Informing: A Meta-Analysis","authors":"Fanxiao Wani Qiu,&nbsp;Joanna Park,&nbsp;Amanda Vite,&nbsp;Erika Patall,&nbsp;Henrike Moll","doi":"10.1111/desc.13576","DOIUrl":"10.1111/desc.13576","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Empirical studies on selective teaching and informing indicate that children may vary what they teach depending on whom they are teaching, taking into account how helpful the information is for a given audience. The current meta-analysis quantifies the effect of selective informing and teaching in 2–7-year-olds by examining the relationship between the helpfulness of the information and the frequency of information transmission. Through a systematic search that yielded 1483 results, 28 studies (104 effect sizes, <i>N</i> = 2716) met the inclusion criteria. Using robust variance estimation, we found a medium average effect, Hedges’ <i>g</i> = 0.578, 95% CI (0.331, 0.825), suggesting that children selectively share information based on its perceived helpfulness to the listener. Moderator analyses revealed that age and communicative context were significant factors. Children were more informative in their communication when asked to teach compared to other, nonpedagogical prompts. This finding supports and extends natural pedagogy theory—young children not only interpret pedagogical information differently than information acquired through other means, but they are more selective in their informing when teaching. Additionally, we observed a key developmental progression at age 4. Four- to 7-year-olds, but not 2–3-year-olds, selectively shared information that was most helpful for a given learner. This coincides with the development of false-belief understanding, which undergoes significant development at around age 4. Taken together, the present synthesis suggests that young children actively engage in selective social learning from both sides, that of beneficiaries and benefactors of valuable information.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":48392,"journal":{"name":"Developmental Science","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2024-10-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142394262","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Timescales of Rational Inattention","authors":"Nivedita Mani","doi":"10.1111/desc.13571","DOIUrl":"10.1111/desc.13571","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;p&gt;To reconcile previously reported differences in information-seeking behaviour displayed by neurodivergent children and their neurotypical peers, Jones et al. (&lt;span&gt;2024&lt;/span&gt;) present a compelling new theory of rational information-seeking behaviour. The central premise of rational inattention is that optimal information-seeking behaviour may centre around learning to disengage from imprecise sources, that is, sources where information gain is expected to be low and imprecise. Thus, children with dyslexia may, over time, selectively disengage from further processing of text, which past experience has taught them provides minimal information gain. Neurotypical children who have experienced greater information gain from text sources, however, may persevere and attend to such sources proportionately in the future.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Rational inattention has critical bridges to previous rational accounts of curiosity, where the rational agent aims to maximise information gain by &lt;i&gt;attending&lt;/i&gt; to sources that maximally increase the usefulness of their knowledge (e.g., Dubey and Griffiths &lt;span&gt;2020&lt;/span&gt;). These links to previous accounts of curiosity are worth considering in greater detail towards a unified account of information-seeking behaviour. In particular, in reconciling these accounts, one question worth pursuing is the relationship between rational attention—as characterised by rational accounts of curiosity—and rational inattention. Is rational attention the flip side of rational inattention or are different factors likely to impact the sources children choose to attend to in the search for information gain and the sources children disengage from over time. My suspicion is that at least a partial answer to this question may lie in paying closer attention (pun unintended) to two timescales of rational inattention, in particular, the real-time and the developmental timescale of rational inattention (cf. McMurray &lt;span&gt;2016&lt;/span&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Let us first consider the timescale of real-time processing in the proposed model. The model suggests that some reconstruction of the input is produced regardless of the precision of this reconstruction in the initial stages of processing (see Figure 1). Thus, even input that is later evaluated as imprecise is included in the early processing stages. The error between the input and the imprecise reconstruction is downweighted, retrospectively, based on the learner's experience with such stimuli (e.g., see Schütte, Mani, and Behne &lt;span&gt;2020&lt;/span&gt;, for evidence of such retrospective selective learning in young children). This is where rational inattention comes in. Indeed, the early reconstruction of all input is the reason why a clamped model—without such retrospective downweighting—shows improved learning from even imprecise input. Here, rational attention and rational inattention may be seen as flip sides of the same coin with the input being retrospectively weighted in essentially the same way to allow attent","PeriodicalId":48392,"journal":{"name":"Developmental Science","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2024-10-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/desc.13571","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142394325","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Toddlers’ Helping Behavior Is Affected by the Effortful Costs Associated With Helping Others","authors":"Mia Radovanovic,&nbsp;Hannah Solby,&nbsp;Katie S. Rose,&nbsp;Jaemin Hwang,&nbsp;Ece Yucer,&nbsp;Jessica A. Sommerville","doi":"10.1111/desc.13569","DOIUrl":"10.1111/desc.13569","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Although the presence of early helping behavior has been firmly established, it is unclear to what extent children are willing to adopt costs to help others, as well as how this willingness changes as children get older. Canadian 21- to 36-month-olds (<i>N </i>= 48) participated in four helping tasks varying in the type and degree of effort required to help (lifting force, cognitive load, the number of steps in a task, and pushing force). When costs were lower, toddlers were not only more likely to help but also provided help more readily and helped in ways that prioritized others’ needs. Importantly, we found that age and how costly helping was to individual children each uniquely predicted high-cost helping, but not low-cost helping. Overall, we demonstrate that toddlers’ helping is sensitive to a variety of effortful costs, while simultaneously demonstrating that maturation and individual costs appear to uniquely influence high-cost helping.</p>","PeriodicalId":48392,"journal":{"name":"Developmental Science","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2024-10-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/desc.13569","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142394326","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Rooting for Their Own Gender: Preschoolers’ Selective Preference for Winners","authors":"Cristina-Ioana Galusca,&nbsp;Anna Eve Helmlinger,&nbsp;Elodie Barat,&nbsp;Olivier Pascalis,&nbsp;Jean-Baptiste Van der Henst","doi":"10.1111/desc.13575","DOIUrl":"10.1111/desc.13575","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Children's social preferences are influenced by the relative status of other individuals, but also by their social identity and the degree to which those individuals are like them. Previous studies have investigated these aspects separately and showed that in some circumstances children prefer high-status individuals and own-gender individuals. Gender is a particularly interesting case to study because it is a strong dimension of social identity, but also one of the most prevalent forms of social hierarchy, with males conceptualised as superior to females, by adults and children alike. Here we directly asked how children's social preferences are influenced by status (winner or loser of a zero-sum conflict) and winner gender (female or male) in different scenarios (same or mixed-gender). In Experiment 1, children saw same-gender conflicts between two females or two males and they displayed an overall preference for winners. In Experiment 2, participants watched two mixed-gender conflicts, one where the female prevailed and one where the male prevailed. In this case, children chose the winner, but only when they had the same gender as themselves. Experiment 3 confirmed that children preferred own-gender individuals in the absence of conflict or status. Overall, children are sensitive to the relative status of other individuals and use this information to make social decisions. However, preschoolers do not prefer just any individual who wins access to a resource. They preferred dominant individuals, but only when they were of their own gender. This suggests that children's dominance evaluations are modulated by children's social identity.</p>","PeriodicalId":48392,"journal":{"name":"Developmental Science","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2024-10-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/desc.13575","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142394263","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Early Caregiver Predictability Shapes Neural Indices of Statistical Learning Later in Infancy","authors":"Tess Allegra Forest,&nbsp;Sarah A. McCormick,&nbsp;Lauren Davel,&nbsp;Nwabisa Mlandu,&nbsp;Michal R. Zieff,&nbsp;Khula South Africa Data Collection Team,&nbsp;Dima Amso,&nbsp;Kirsty A. Donald,&nbsp;Laurel Joy Gabard-Durnam","doi":"10.1111/desc.13570","DOIUrl":"10.1111/desc.13570","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Caregivers play an outsized role in shaping early life experiences and development, but we often lack mechanistic insight into <i>how</i> exactly caregiver behavior scaffolds the neurodevelopment of specific learning processes. Here, we capitalized on the fact that caregivers differ in how predictable their behavior is to ask if infants’ early environmental input shapes their brains’ later ability to learn about predictable information. As part of an ongoing longitudinal study in South Africa, we recorded naturalistic, dyadic interactions between 103 (46 females and 57 males) infants and their primary caregivers at 3–6 months of age, from which we calculated the predictability of caregivers’ behavior, following caregiver vocalization and overall. When the same infants were 6–12-months-old they participated in an auditory statistical learning task during EEG. We found evidence of learning-related change in infants’ neural responses to predictable information during the statistical learning task. The magnitude of statistical learning-related change in infants’ EEG responses was associated with the predictability of their caregiver's vocalizations several months earlier, such that infants with more predictable caregiver vocalization patterns showed more evidence of statistical learning later in the first year of life. These results suggest that early experiences with caregiver predictability influence learning, providing support for the hypothesis that the neurodevelopment of core learning and memory systems is closely tied to infants’ experiences during key developmental windows.</p>","PeriodicalId":48392,"journal":{"name":"Developmental Science","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2024-10-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/desc.13570","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142366968","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Prospective Interrelation Between Sensory Sensitivity and Fine Motor Skills During the First 18 Months Predicts Later Autistic Features","authors":"Elena Capelli,&nbsp;Alessandro Crippa,&nbsp;Elena Maria Riboldi,&nbsp;Carolina Beretta,&nbsp;Eleonora Siri,&nbsp;Maddalena Cassa,&nbsp;Massimo Molteni,&nbsp;Valentina Riva","doi":"10.1111/desc.13573","DOIUrl":"10.1111/desc.13573","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Sensory features are included in the diagnostic criteria of autism and atypical sensory responsiveness may produce “cascading effects” on later development. Similarly, autistic individuals often struggle with motor coordination and early delays in the motor domain appear to be linked to later development. However, the longitudinal interrelation between early sensory profiles and motor features on later socio-communicative skills remains to be defined. This study aimed to investigate whether sensory sensitivity impacts fine motor abilities and vice versa from 12 to 18 months of age and to examine how sensory-motor interplay would be associated with later autistic traits at 24–36 months of age. The sample included 118 infant siblings of autistic children recruited at 12 months of age. Sensory sensitivity and eye–hand coordination were assessed at 12 and 18 months of age and autistic traits were evaluated at 24–36 months of age. Cross-lagged panel analysis revealed significant within-domain effects for sensory sensitivity and eye–hand coordination from 12 to 18 months. Furthermore, a significant association between these two domains on later autistic traits was found. In analyzing the longitudinal bidirectional relationship, we found that lower eye–hand coordination skills at 12 months predicted later sensory sensitivity at 18 months, and in turn, social communication skills at 24–36 months. The present study offers new empirical evidence supporting the potential clinical value of including sensory and motor measures besides social communication skills within early autism surveillance programs.</p>","PeriodicalId":48392,"journal":{"name":"Developmental Science","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2024-09-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/desc.13573","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142337090","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Functional Brain Adaptations During Speech Processing in 4-Month-Old Bilingual Infants","authors":"Borja Blanco,&nbsp;Monika Molnar,&nbsp;Irene Arrieta,&nbsp;César Caballero-Gaudes,&nbsp;Manuel Carreiras","doi":"10.1111/desc.13572","DOIUrl":"10.1111/desc.13572","url":null,"abstract":"<div>\u0000 \u0000 <p>Language learning is influenced by both neural development and environmental experiences. This work investigates the influence of early bilingual experience on the neural mechanisms underlying speech processing in 4-month-old infants. We study how an early environmental factor such as bilingualism interacts with neural development by comparing monolingual and bilingual infants’ brain responses to speech. We used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) to measure 4-month-old Spanish-Basque bilingual and Spanish monolingual infants’ brain responses while they listened to forward (FW) and backward (BW) speech stimuli in Spanish. We reveal distinct neural signatures associated with bilingual adaptations, including increased engagement of bilateral inferior frontal and temporal regions during speech processing in bilingual infants, as opposed to left hemispheric functional specialization observed in monolingual infants. This study provides compelling evidence of bilingualism-induced brain adaptations during speech processing in infants as young as 4 months. These findings emphasize the role of early language experience in shaping neural plasticity during infancy suggesting that bilingual exposure at this young age profoundly influences the neural mechanisms underlying speech processing.</p>\u0000 </div>","PeriodicalId":48392,"journal":{"name":"Developmental Science","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2024-09-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142337171","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Seeing Gray in a World of Black and White: Children Appreciate Reasoners Who Approach Moral Dilemmas With Humility","authors":"Pearl Han Li,&nbsp;Tamar Kushnir","doi":"10.1111/desc.13565","DOIUrl":"10.1111/desc.13565","url":null,"abstract":"<p>Moral decisions often involve dilemmas: cases of conflict between competing obligations. In two studies (<i>N</i> = 204), we ask whether children appreciate that reasoning through dilemmas involves acknowledging that there is no single, simple solution. In Study 1, 5- to 8-year-old US children were randomly assigned to a Moral Dilemma condition, in which story characters face dilemmas between two prosocial actions, or a Personal Cost control, in which story characters face decisions between a matched prosocial action and a self-interested action. Children were then presented with two reasoners who made the same judgment, but one confidently endorsed one moral action, and the other hesitantly acknowledged both actions. As they aged, children became more likely to prefer the uncertain reasoner's “way of thinking” in the Moral Dilemma compared to the Personal Cost condition. They also inferred that the uncertain reasoner was nicer and more trustworthy than the confident one. In Study 2, when both reasoners acknowledged the dilemma and differed only in their level of uncertainty, 5-year-olds preferred the acknowledgment to be accompanied by a confident decision, 6- and 7-year-olds preferred it be accompanied by uncertainty, and 8-year-olds showed no preference. These results show that, before the age at which children can resolve dilemmas successfully on their own, they recognize and value others who approach dilemmas with appropriate humility.</p>","PeriodicalId":48392,"journal":{"name":"Developmental Science","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2024-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/desc.13565","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142337091","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"‘Fix’ the Child or Change the Learning Environment?","authors":"Duncan E. Astle,&nbsp;Mark H. Johnson,&nbsp;Danyal Akarca","doi":"10.1111/desc.13567","DOIUrl":"10.1111/desc.13567","url":null,"abstract":"&lt;p&gt;Each of us experiences constraints upon how we process the world around us. In turn, we each allocate resources strategically, favouring channels of input that minimise the epistemic uncertainty about that world. According to this view emergent differences in cognition need not be attributed to nebulous information processing ‘deficits’, but to the natural unfolding of &lt;i&gt;resource-rational behaviour&lt;/i&gt; over developmental time. In their formalisation of ‘Rational Inattention’, Jones, Jones, Koldewyn and Westerman, tie together many key developmental observations. Perhaps most crucially, they attempt to reconcile two seemingly disparate phenomena: exogenous sources of uncertainty can actively &lt;i&gt;attract&lt;/i&gt; our attention (e.g., Poli et al. &lt;span&gt;2020&lt;/span&gt;), whereas, endogenously driven uncertainty stemming from noise within the system, drives &lt;i&gt;disengagement&lt;/i&gt; from that source of input (e.g., Jones et al. &lt;span&gt;2018&lt;/span&gt;).&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;The rational allocation of resources, within the context of input channels with differing levels of noise, is implemented within simulations. Artificial agents disengage from sources of input that they do not gain information from. This is formalised as a loss function, summing the losses derived from a four-path autoencoder. Crucially, imprecision (or noise) within one of those input paths makes it difficult to compress and subsequently decode information. This creates an information bottleneck (Tishby, Pereira, and Bialek &lt;span&gt;2000&lt;/span&gt;). Put simply the agent does not update its learnable parameters on the tasks it cannot solve. Instead, the global signal is better minimised by referencing the inputs that have greater endogenous informational precision.&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;Rational Inattention is a theoretical framework centred on the dynamic interaction between the child and (potential) domains of information, and how the allocation of resources might shape future processing. We like many of its features. But in this short commentary we would like to focus on what this account does not &lt;i&gt;yet&lt;/i&gt; explain. Even if we side-step the obvious issue of what makes information differentially judged to be precise or not in the first place, how well does the authors’ characterisation of neurodevelopmental differences match reality?&lt;/p&gt;&lt;p&gt;As the authors acknowledge, some radical simplification is necessary in order to get the simulations running, but there are meaningful differences between real neurodevelopmental phenotypes and the simulations. First, discrete domain-specific difficulties are pretty rare in reality. Moreover, where these difficulties do occur they commonly cascade to difficulties in other domains, rather than driving &lt;i&gt;enhanced&lt;/i&gt; processing of other streams (e.g., Goh, Griffiths, and Norbury &lt;span&gt;2021&lt;/span&gt;). Second, while areas of strength and difficulty do occur (e.g., Astle et al. &lt;span&gt;2019&lt;/span&gt;), they tend to be &lt;i&gt;relative&lt;/i&gt; areas of strength &lt;i&gt;within&lt;/i&gt; an individual, rather than absolute strengt","PeriodicalId":48392,"journal":{"name":"Developmental Science","volume":"28 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2024-09-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/desc.13567","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142337170","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"心理学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}