Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells最新文献

{"title":"Local edge passivation of laser-scribed cells for compensating cut losses","authors":"Dheeraj Sah ,&nbsp;Karolis Parfeniukas ,&nbsp;Roberto Boccardi ,&nbsp;Narendra Bandaru ,&nbsp;Agata Lachowicz ,&nbsp;Bertrand Paviet- Salomon ,&nbsp;Benjamin Borie ,&nbsp;Mira Baraket ,&nbsp;Maksym Plakhotnyuk ,&nbsp;Gisele A. Dos Reis Benatto ,&nbsp;Sune Thorsteinsson ,&nbsp;Peter B. Poulsen ,&nbsp;Rasmus Schmidt Davidsen","doi":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114178","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114178","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The present work explores the application of Direct Atomic Layer Processing (DALP®) using NANOFABRICATOR® tool from ATLANT 3D for local edge passivation of laser-scribed cells. Owing to the defects created at the edges by laser scribing, the carrier lifetime decreases significantly in these regions as defects act as recombination centers. To compensate and minimize these losses, a 50 nm blanket layer of TiO₂, using titanium iso-propoxide (TTIP) as precursor and water as co-reactant, was deposited locally using atomic layer deposition (ALD) around the edges, thereby covering the impacted areas. Since the precursor, tunnel oxide passivated contact (TOPCon), solar cells used here were without metallization, the cell parameters like lifetime, lifetime at maximum power point (V_mpp), implied open circuit voltage (iV_oc) and implied fill factor (iFF) are evaluated in this study. The device is probed using a Sinton WCT120-PL tool and MDP Mapper from Freiberg Instruments for lifetime characterization before and after passivation. Layer deposition followed by annealing lead to a significant improvement of 149 μs in lifetime and a gain of 8.6 mV in implied open circuit voltage (iV_oc).</div></div>","PeriodicalId":429,"journal":{"name":"Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells","volume":"299 ","pages":"Article 114178"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146025787","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"AC impedance spectroscopy of c-Si solar cells with various rear contact configurations","authors":"Mohamed M. Shehata ,&nbsp;Gabriel Bartholazzi ,&nbsp;Christian Samundsett ,&nbsp;Daniel H. Macdonald ,&nbsp;Lachlan E. Black","doi":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114199","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114199","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study explores the impact of various rear contact configurations on the AC impedance characteristics of p-type crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells. We fabricated and examined six otherwise identical cell structures with varying rear contact configurations, including direct Ag/c-Si contacts and configurations with MoO_x or Al_yTiO_x/TiO_x/MoO_x interlayers, paired with Ag or ITO/Ag electrodes, in p-type c-Si solar cells with front homojunction contacts. The cells exhibited efficiencies ranging from 12.5 % to 22.5 % and were characterized using various electrical techniques, including current-density–voltage (J–V), external quantum efficiency (EQE), capacitance–voltage (C–V), capacitance–frequency (C–f), and impedance spectroscopy (IS) measurements, in order to correlate photovoltaic performance with AC electrical features. We find that the influence of the rear contacts is clearly identifiable in the AC characteristics of the devices. In particular, these techniques uncovered variations in carrier lifetimes, junction behavior, the presence of ohmic or Schottky contacts, as well as allowing the identification of traps and revealing the influence of series resistance in fully metalized cells, all linked to the different rear contact configurations. These findings reveal the ability of AC impedance techniques to distinguish contributions from different regions of the device to overall performance, providing complementary information to conventional DC electrical techniques. As such, AC impedance serves as an important tool for contact development in c-Si solar cells, particularly for novel contact structures such as those utilizing transition metal oxides (TMOs).</div></div>","PeriodicalId":429,"journal":{"name":"Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells","volume":"299 ","pages":"Article 114199"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146076226","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Encapsulant removal and recovery in crystalline silicon solar modules: A critical review and LCA-based case study","authors":"K.M.D. Nimesha,&nbsp;D.J. Robert,&nbsp;F. Giustozzi,&nbsp;E. Kandare,&nbsp;S. Setunge","doi":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114191","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114191","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The transition away from fossil fuel-based energy sources has necessitated the adoption of renewable energy sources, with the photovoltaic (PV) industry experiencing significant growth in recent years. As a result, the accumulation of end-of-life (EoL) PV modules has been identified as a major waste management issue due to the lack of efficient disposal and PV recycling practices. The first generation of PV modules, predominantly consisting of crystalline silicon (c-Si) PV modules, has reached their EoL phase, contributing to PV waste accumulation. Polymeric layers, particularly ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), are the most widely used encapsulants in the PV industry, with their removal identified as the most critical and challenging step in PV recycling. Mechanical, chemical, and thermal methods are employed for this purpose, with variations in recycling efficiency and potential environmental problems, including toxic emissions and solvent contamination. This study presents a comprehensive review of the properties of EVA, current EVA removal and recycling techniques, and associated challenges, providing valuable insights into sustainable PV waste management. Additionally, a case study evaluates the environmental impacts of key stages in commonly used PV waste management and recycling methods, aiming to identify environmental hotspots associated with encapsulant removal using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Disaggregated assessment enables identification of environmental hotspots across waste handling, delamination, and recovery stages. Findings highlight notable environmental burdens associated with EVA removal, particularly within human health and ecosystem quality impact categories, supporting informed decision-making for sustainable PV waste management pathways.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":429,"journal":{"name":"Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells","volume":"299 ","pages":"Article 114191"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146170713","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Static mechanical loading tests on photovoltaic modules accounting for wind-induced non-uniformity: crack evolution and electrical performance degradation","authors":"Hongbo Liu ,&nbsp;Can Qiu ,&nbsp;Liulu Guo ,&nbsp;Jijian Lian ,&nbsp;Ye Yao","doi":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114208","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114208","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Current static mechanical load (SML) tests for photovoltaic (PV) modules assume uniformly distributed pressure, whereas the actual wind pressure on module surfaces is strongly non-uniform. This study integrates CFD-based flow-field analysis, dual-zone SML tests, EL and I–V measurements, and a validated finite-element/XFEM model to assess wind-induced microcracking under non-uniform loads. Flow-field simulations indicate that the non-uniformity factor between the two regions on the PV module is 1.76, from which the non-uniform equivalent static load levels are obtained. Compared with uniform loading, non-uniform loading significantly redistributes deflection and strain: front-side loading reduces mid-span deflection by 6.5 %, whereas back-side loading increases deflection and amplifies local strains, revealing intrinsic asymmetry between front and back-side loading. EL and I–V results show that non-uniform loading promotes network-like and diagonal cracks concentrated in the high-load region, while short-term power loss remains below 1 %. The FE–XFEM model reproduces these responses and indicates a 16 % reduction in cell crack-initiation load under non-uniform loading. Parametric analysis shows that reducing lower support spacing can decrease peak module deflection and cell stress by up to 17.3 % and 18.7 %, respectively. These findings highlight the need to incorporate wind-load non-uniformity and support conditions into SML testing and PV module design.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":429,"journal":{"name":"Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells","volume":"299 ","pages":"Article 114208"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146170818","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Nickel clusters synergized with 1T-MoS2 for enhanced photothermal conversion enabling efficient seawater desalination and wastewater purification","authors":"Hongxiang Shu,&nbsp;Xinli Li,&nbsp;Congming Tang,&nbsp;Zhi Chen","doi":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114225","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114225","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The integration of nickel clusters (Ni NCs) with metallic 1T-phase molybdenum disulfide (1T-MoS₂) offers a promising approach for the development of efficient solar-driven evaporation systems. This study reveals that the synergistic effects between Ni NCs and 1T-MoS₂ arising from enhanced charge transfer and pronounced localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) lead to markedly improved broadband light absorption and photothermal conversion efficiency. As a result, the fabricated Ni NCs/1T-MoS₂-based aerogel evaporator achieves a high water evaporation rate of 2.70 kg m⁻² h⁻¹ under one-sun illumination, which is competitive with current state-of-the-art evaporators. Moreover, the evaporator exhibits excellent operational stability in continuous seawater desalination tests and demonstrates strong potential for purifying organic wastewater contaminants such as tetracycline (TC) and methyl orange (MO). When deployed under natural sunlight, the device attains an exceptional evaporation rate of 4.57 kg m⁻²h⁻¹ for real seawater samples. These results underscore the promise of Ni NCs/1T-MoS₂ composites as a highly efficient, durable, and multifunctional photothermal platform suited for sustainable desalination and wastewater treatment applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":429,"journal":{"name":"Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells","volume":"299 ","pages":"Article 114225"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146170821","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Self-dispersion and steric hindrance co-stabilized oil-based MXene nanofluids for efficient medium to high temperature photothermal conversion","authors":"Guanwang Chen,&nbsp;Jianxiang Zhang,&nbsp;Peng Su,&nbsp;Nianben Zheng,&nbsp;Zhiqiang Sun","doi":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114207","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114207","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>MXene-based nanofluids exhibit outstanding broadband solar absorption capabilities in direct absorption solar collectors (DASCs); however, nanoparticle aggregation at elevated temperatures poses challenges to their practical use. To address this limitation, we develop a dual-stabilization strategy for oil-based MXene nanofluids that combines self-dispersion and steric hindrance mechanisms. This innovative approach employs hydrazine hydrate intercalation (reducing particle size) with freeze-drying-induced surface crumpling to enhance the intrinsic self-dispersion capability of MXene. Concurrently, long-chain oleylamine ligands create spatial barriers that prevent direct contact between nanoparticles. This integrated approach effectively mitigates MXene aggregation driven by van der Waals forces, as evidenced by a mere 0.14 % reduction in absorbance (765 nm) after 120 h of thermal aging at 150 °C, while maintaining the initial particle size distribution. Furthermore, the optimized nanofluid demonstrates exceptional photothermal performance, achieving a solar-weighted absorption fraction exceeding 97 % at a concentration of 60 ppm with a 3 cm path length and an equilibrium temperature of 195.6 °C under 6 sun irradiation, 44 % higher than that of the base fluid. Additionally, the system exhibits consistent photothermal stability during cycling, with relative peak temperature fluctuations remaining below 3.1 % under concentrated irradiation (4 sun and 6 sun). These results highlight the nanofluid's excellent optical absorption and thermal stability within the medium to high-temperature range of 100 °C–200 °C, implying that the proposed stabilization methodology is promising for developing durable MXene nanofluids suitable for this operational window in solar thermal applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":429,"journal":{"name":"Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells","volume":"299 ","pages":"Article 114207"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146170700","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Development of hole-transport layers in inverted perovskite solar cells","authors":"Xiangfei Cheng ,&nbsp;Jiaqi Li ,&nbsp;Yucheng Li ,&nbsp;Pingjuan Niu","doi":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114214","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114214","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Perovskite solar cells (PSCs) are regarded as the most promising next-generation photovoltaic technology thanks to their high power conversion efficiency (PCE), solution processability, and tunable bandgap. Compared to conventional normal (n-i-p) architectures, inverted (p-i-n) devices exhibit better compatibility for tandem integration with silicon, where the selection of hole transport layer (HTL) materials and interfacial engineering critically influence both device performance and stability.</div><div>This article systematically traces the evolution of HTLs in p-i-n PSCs: from organic polymers (e.g. poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene):poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT: PSS), poly(triarylamine) (PTAA)) to inorganic materials (e.g. nickel oxide(NiO_x), copper thiocyanate (CuSCN), copper(I) iodide (CuI)), and then to self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) represented by 2-(9H-carbazol-9-yl)ethylphosphonic acid(2PACz), 2-(9H-carbazol-9-yl)ethylphosphonic acid with a methoxy substituent (MeO-2PACz), [4-(3,6-dimethyl-9H-carbazol-9-yl)butyl] phosphonic acid (Me-4PACz), and others. In particular, SAMs—owing to their tunable energetics, interfacial defect passivation, and ultralow parasitic absorption—have accelerated continual record improvements in the efficiencies of p-i-n devices and perovskite-silicon tandems. Meanwhile, composite HTLs such as NiO_x/SAM bilayers exhibit synergistic advantages in film coverage and energy-level alignment. Building on this, the article summarizes how representative materials and interfacial optimization strategies impact carrier extraction, crystallization control, and long-term stability, and it highlights future research priorities in molecular design, scalable green processing, coordinated tuning of energy levels and wettability, and large-area uniformity. These directions aim to inform the development of high-efficiency, long-lifetime, and manufacturable PSCs and Si-based tandem cells.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":429,"journal":{"name":"Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells","volume":"299 ","pages":"Article 114214"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146170667","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Synergistic engineering of MXene surface terminations and vertically aligned aerogel architectures for highly efficient solar steam generation","authors":"Xiaopeng Jiang ,&nbsp;Ruiqi Xu ,&nbsp;Na Wei ,&nbsp;Zeyu Yang ,&nbsp;Panpan Cui ,&nbsp;Xiaojie Song ,&nbsp;Hongzhi Cui","doi":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114219","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114219","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Solar-driven interfacial evaporation is a promising technology for sustainable freshwater production. However, designing multifunctional evaporators with both structural durability and high evaporation efficiency remains challenging. Here, a surface termination engineering strategy through fluoride-free Lewis molten salt etching is proposed to synthesize MXene with tunable halogen functionalities (Cl/Br). To overcome the limitations of conventional 3D porous networks in solar desalination, a directional freeze-drying technique is employed to construct vertically aligned MXene chitosan aerogels with hierarchical microchannels. Compared to Cl-terminated composite aerogel, the aerogel of Br-terminated MXene exhibits enhanced broadband sunlight harvesting (96.17 %). The synergistic interplay between vertical channels and hydrophilic pores enables rapid water/vapor transport, achieving an exceptional evaporation rate of 2.18 kg m⁻² h⁻¹ under one sun irradiation with ultralow evaporation enthalpy (1.67 MJ kg⁻¹). Furthermore, the aerogel demonstrates remarkable durability, underwater oleophobicity, and mechanical resilience. This study demonstrates an environmentally friendly fabrication strategy for durable solar evaporators with industrial potential.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":429,"journal":{"name":"Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells","volume":"299 ","pages":"Article 114219"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146170714","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Mechanically driven hybrid recycling of polyolefin elastomer glass–glass photovoltaic module for targeted material recovery","authors":"Aistis Rapolas Zubas ,&nbsp;Dmitri Goljandin ,&nbsp;Remigijus Ivanauskas ,&nbsp;Egidijus Griškonis ,&nbsp;Alessandra Bonoli ,&nbsp;Jolita Kruopienė ,&nbsp;Gintaras Denafas","doi":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114221","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114221","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The increasing deployment of glass–glass photovoltaic (PV) modules with polyolefin elastomer (POE) encapsulation creates a need for recycling approaches tailored to these modules. The study aims to develop and evaluate a hybrid recycling process combining mechanical, thermal, and chemical treatments that provides separation and recovery of valuable materials from end-of-life PV modules, supporting more sustainable waste management. High-intensity impact milling fragmented the module into particles, with the coarse fraction (&gt;2.8 mm) retaining 22% of the total mass mainly as bonded multi-layered pieces. Thermal delamination at 500 °C decomposed POE and detached glass, solar cells, and metal ribbons, with mass loss analysis confirming that this single fraction contained over 94% of POE. Subsequent hydrometallurgical acid leaching enabled extraction of metals. Its analysis showed that 94% of aluminium and 93% of silver — originating from solar cell metallization — were observed in the coarse fraction. These results proved that strong POE elasticity preserved large, bonded components after mechanical treatment, concentrating most encapsulant and solar cells in the coarse fraction. Additional sieving of the delaminated &gt;2.8 mm material demonstrated that fine sub-fractions (&lt;1 mm), although representing only one-third of the mass, contained more than 98% of the metals within the fraction. The results demonstrated, for the first time, how the mechanical treatment of POE encapsulated glass–glass PV module leads the material separation and distribution. The developed approach enables targeted processing of selected fractions — reducing energy demand and chemical use — and therefore offering an environmentally beneficial and more cost-efficient recycling pathway.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":429,"journal":{"name":"Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells","volume":"299 ","pages":"Article 114221"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146170716","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A novel damp heat-induced failure mechanism in PV modules (with case study in TOPCon)","authors":"Haoran Wang ,&nbsp;Chandany Sen ,&nbsp;Muhammad Umair Khan ,&nbsp;Ting Huang ,&nbsp;Hao Song ,&nbsp;Munan Gao ,&nbsp;Ruirui Lv ,&nbsp;Yuanjie Yu ,&nbsp;Bram Hoex","doi":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114195","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.solmat.2026.114195","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Silicon solar technology continues to dominate the market, with Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact (TOPCon) technology leading in efficiency. However, as devices approach fundamental performance limits, new failure modes may emerge or existing ones may become more critical, and their long-term reliability remains insufficiently understood. This study investigates the effect of damp heat (DH) exposure on bifacial n-type TOPCon modules with laser-assisted fired contacts, utilising different encapsulants: EVA, POE, and EVA-POE-EVA (EPE). After 2000 h of DH testing, modules showed P_max losses ranging from ∼6%_rel to ∼16%_rel, primarily due to reduced V_oc caused by increased rear-side recombination. Modules encapsulated with POE on both sides degraded least (∼8%_rel), while those using white EVA on the rear side suffered higher losses, especially when combined with EPE on the front (∼16%_rel). Material analyses revealed a degradation pathway driven by magnesium (Mg) additives in the white EVA. Under DH exposure, Mg hydrates and generates an alkaline micro-environment that corrodes the SiN_x:H layer, facilitating moisture ingress in the poly-Si and SiO_x layers. This enhances interfacial hydrogen concentration, leading to depassivation and Mg-rich shunting defects, thereby increasing J_{0, rear} and reducing V_oc. These findings underscore the need to control encapsulant composition by limiting Mg in white EVA and improving cell passivation. The minimodules studied here were specifically fabricated R&amp;D purposes to probe humidity-induced degradation pathways. Through an in-depth understanding of this mechanism and thorough optimisation of cell and encapsulant design, effective mitigation strategies have been integrated upstream of module production, substantially eliminating the risk in commercial modules.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":429,"journal":{"name":"Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells","volume":"299 ","pages":"Article 114195"},"PeriodicalIF":6.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146170816","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}