{"title":"Clinical Implications of Proton Pump Inhibitors and Vonoprazan Micro/Nano Drug Delivery Systems for Gastric Acid-Related Disorders and Imaging.","authors":"Aseem Setia, Ranadheer Reddy Challa, Bhaskar Vallamkonda, Vaishali, Matte Kasi Viswanadh, Madaswamy S Muthu","doi":"10.7150/ntno.100727","DOIUrl":"10.7150/ntno.100727","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Excessive stomach acid or bacterial infection are the root causes of gastric acid-related disorders, such as peptic ulcer disease and gastroesophageal reflux disease. Proton pump inhibitors including lansoprazole, omeprazole, esomeprazole, rabeprazole, etc. are medications used to treat gastric acid-related diseases. One of the most effective drugs for treating gastroesophageal reflux disease is vonoprazan, owing to its ability to strongly inhibit gastric acid. Proton pump inhibitors and vonoprazan work in distinct ways to prevent the production of stomach acid. Vonoprazan inhibits acid secretion by blocking the potassium-competitive acid blocker receptor, whereas proton pump inhibitors function by irreversibly blocking the proton pump in the parietal cells of the stomach. Delayed release tablets, delayed release capsules, minitablets, pellets, bilayer, floating, mucoadhesive tablets and nanoparticles, are some of the methods used in the development of micro/nano formulations with proton pump inhibitors and vonoprazan. Diagnosis and therapy of gastric acid-related illnesses, particularly those treated with drugs such as vonoprazan and proton pump inhibitors, rely heavily on imaging modalities such as CT scans, X-rays, endoscopy, fluorescence and HRM imaging. This review provides a comprehensive update on various micro/nanoformulations of proton pump inhibitors and vonoprazan. Moreover, we provide an outlook on clinical imaging of proton pump inhibitors and vonoprazan formulation for gastric acid related diseases. We have limited our discussion to case studies and clinical trials on proton pump inhibitors and vonoprazan for gastric acid related disease.</p>","PeriodicalId":36934,"journal":{"name":"Nanotheranostics","volume":"8 4","pages":"535-560"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-09-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11539181/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142591861","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
NanotheranosticsPub Date : 2024-08-13eCollection Date: 2024-01-01DOI: 10.7150/ntno.96559
Mochamad Z Fahmi, Siti F A Sugito, Aswandi Wibrianto, Siska Novania, Shinta Widyastuti, Musbahu Adam Ahmad, Satya C W Sakti, Lee H Voon
{"title":"Unraveling In vivo Potential of Curcumin-loaded Graphene Quantum Dots on Drug Delivery and Release Kinetics Aspects of Cancer Treatment.","authors":"Mochamad Z Fahmi, Siti F A Sugito, Aswandi Wibrianto, Siska Novania, Shinta Widyastuti, Musbahu Adam Ahmad, Satya C W Sakti, Lee H Voon","doi":"10.7150/ntno.96559","DOIUrl":"10.7150/ntno.96559","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This study introduces an innovative magnetic-based multifunctional anti-cancer drug carrier aiming to enhance the efficacy of curcumin in cancer therapy. The research investigates the potential of Graphene Quantum Dots (GQDs) as a curcumin drug delivery system for inhibiting <i>in vivo</i> cancer growth. GQDs with a particle diameter below 10 nm were synthesized via hydrothermal and Hummers methods, exhibiting homogeneity and crystalline structure according to AFM and XRD analyses. FTIR analysis confirmed functionalization success, revealing the formation of bonds between GQDs and curcumin. The optical properties of GQDs were assessed using a UV-Vis spectrophotometer and spectrofluorometer, resulting in vigorous fluorescence with a quantum yield of 1.32%. Subsequently, loading curcumin onto GQDs (CQDs/cur) resulted in an efficient system for delivering the anti-cancer drug, demonstrating significant <i>in vivo</i> efficacy. It was indicated by reduced tumor diameter and increased body weight in mice. Furthermore, the release kinetics of curcumin from GQDs were analyzed using the Peppas-Sahlin equation under varying pH conditions (4, 7, and 9), revealing the highest release rate in acidic conditions. In conclusion, this study highlights the potential of GQDs as highly efficient carriers for targeted curcumin delivery, showcasing promising prospects in cancer treatment.</p>","PeriodicalId":36934,"journal":{"name":"Nanotheranostics","volume":"8 4","pages":"521-534"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-08-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11539179/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"142591888","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
NanotheranosticsPub Date : 2024-08-01eCollection Date: 2024-01-01DOI: 10.7150/ntno.96286
Donni Kis Apriyanto, Mitrayana, Andreas Setiawan, Rini Widyaningrum
{"title":"Therapeutic and Contrast Agents for Photoacoustic Imaging-Guided Photothermal Therapy: A Narrative Review.","authors":"Donni Kis Apriyanto, Mitrayana, Andreas Setiawan, Rini Widyaningrum","doi":"10.7150/ntno.96286","DOIUrl":"10.7150/ntno.96286","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Photoacoustic imaging is a hybrid modality that combines high-contrast and spectroscopy-based optical imaging specificity with the high spatial resolution of ultrasonography. This review highlights the development and progress of photoacoustic imaging technology over the past decade. This imaging technology has evolved to be more user-friendly, cost-effective, and portable, demonstrating its potential for diverse clinical applications. A potential clinical application lies in the use of photoacoustic imaging as a guiding tool for photothermal therapy. This review was conducted by initially filtering through three databases, namely, Google Scholar, PubMed, and Scopus, resulting in 460 articles published between 2019 and May 2023. Of these, 54 articles were deemed suitable for review after identification. The selected articles were research papers focusing on the development of therapeutic agents that enhance contrast in photoacoustic imaging. All reviewed articles tested these agents both <i>in vitro</i> and <i>in vivo</i>. This review focuses on wavelength absorption and radiation sources for photothermal therapy. The developed agents predominantly used NIR-I wavelengths, whereas the NIR-II region has been less explored, indicating significant potential for future research. This review provides comprehensive insights into the advancement of compounds serving as therapeutic agents and contrast agents in photoacoustic imaging-guided photothermal therapy.</p>","PeriodicalId":36934,"journal":{"name":"Nanotheranostics","volume":"8 4","pages":"506-520"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-08-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11317210/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141972020","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
NanotheranosticsPub Date : 2024-06-08eCollection Date: 2024-01-01DOI: 10.7150/ntno.95863
Yasmeen Khafajah, Mariam Shaheen, Dania El Natour, Maxime Merheb, Rachel Matar, Jamilah Borjac
{"title":"Neuroprotective Effects of Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles in a Rotenone-Induced Mouse Model of Parkinson's Disease.","authors":"Yasmeen Khafajah, Mariam Shaheen, Dania El Natour, Maxime Merheb, Rachel Matar, Jamilah Borjac","doi":"10.7150/ntno.95863","DOIUrl":"10.7150/ntno.95863","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><b>Goals of the investigation:</b> This work aimed to evaluate the neuroprotective effects of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles in an experimental mouse model of rotenone-induced PD and investigate the therapeutic effects of ZnO, cobalt ferrite nanoparticles, and their combination. <b>Methods:</b> The levels of dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, and serotonin were assessed using ELISA in the control and experimental model of PD mice. The dopa-decarboxylase expression level was assayed by real-time PCR. The expression level of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) was assessed by western blot analysis. <b>Results:</b> Our data showed that levels of dopamine decreased in PD mice compared to normal. ZnO NP increased dopamine levels in normal and PD mice (37.5% and 29.5%; respectively, compared to untreated mice). However, ZnO NP did not cause any change in norepinephrine and epinephrine levels either in normal or in PD mice. Levels of serotonin decreased by 64.0%, and 51.1% in PD mice treated with cobalt ferrite and dual ZnO- cobalt ferrite NPs; respectively, when compared to PD untreated mice. The mRNA levels of dopa-decarboxylase increased in both normal and PD mice treated with ZnO NP. Its level decreased when using cobalt ferrite NP and the dual ZnO-cobalt ferrite NP when compared to untreated PD mice. A significant decrease in TH expression by 0.25, 0.68, and 0.62 folds was observed in normal mice treated with ZnO, cobalt ferrite, and the dual ZnO-cobalt ferrite NP as compared to normal untreated mice. In PD mice, ZnO administration caused a non-significant 0.15-fold decrease in TH levels while both cobalt ferrite and the dual ZnO-cobalt ferrite NP administration caused a significant 0.3 and 0.4-fold decrease respectively when compared to untreated PD mice. <b>Principal conclusion</b>: This study reveals that ZnO NPs may be utilized as a potential intervention to elevate dopamine levels to aid in PD treatment.</p>","PeriodicalId":36934,"journal":{"name":"Nanotheranostics","volume":"8 4","pages":"497-505"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11217785/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141499229","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Nanomedicine And Nanotheranostics: Special Focus on Imaging of Anticancer Drugs Induced Cardiac Toxicity.","authors":"Aseem Setia, Randheer Reddy Challa, Bhaskar Vallamkonda, Phanikumarreddy Satti, Abhishesh Kumar Mehata, Vishnu Priya, Senthil Kumar, Madaswamy S Muthu","doi":"10.7150/ntno.96846","DOIUrl":"10.7150/ntno.96846","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Cardiotoxicity, the often-overlooked second leading cause of death in cancer patients, has been associated with certain anticancer drugs. These drugs can induce cardiac damage through various pathways, and their adverse effects on the heart are not fully understood. Cardiotoxicity is a major issue in cancer treatment, particularly with chemotherapeutics, because it can cause cardiac dysfunction such as hypotension, heart failure, and even death. Doxorubicin, 5-fluorouracil, and trastuzumab, all of which are very potent anticancer drugs, are known to cause cardiotoxicity. When it comes to lowering cardiotoxicity and alleviating the harmful effects of chemotherapy medications, nanomedicine has the potential to transport therapeutic molecules. Nanotheranostics offers novel options for identifying and treating cardiotoxicity resulting from a wide range of substances, including anticancer medications. Additionally, theranostics platforms such as micellar systems, carbon-based nanomedicine, solid lipid nanoparticles, polymeric nanoparticles, and liposomes can transport chemotherapeutic medications while minimising their cardiotoxicity. The present level of understanding of the molecular and cellular processes that lead to cardiotoxicity in reaction to both traditional chemotherapy and targeted drug delivery systems is summarised in this article. This review delves into nanomedicine and nanotheranostics, with an emphasis on reducing anticancer medication-induced cardiac toxicity. Nanotheranostics provide potential solutions for early diagnosis and tailored therapy of heart injury by combining diagnostic and therapeutic capabilities into nanomedicine.</p>","PeriodicalId":36934,"journal":{"name":"Nanotheranostics","volume":"8 4","pages":"473-496"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-06-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11217786/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141499185","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
NanotheranosticsPub Date : 2024-05-28eCollection Date: 2024-01-01DOI: 10.7150/ntno.95251
Vaskuri G S Sainaga Jyothi, Nagavendra Kommineni
{"title":"Peptide Conjugated Boron Neutron Capture Therapy for Enhanced Tumor Targeting.","authors":"Vaskuri G S Sainaga Jyothi, Nagavendra Kommineni","doi":"10.7150/ntno.95251","DOIUrl":"10.7150/ntno.95251","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>A cutting-edge non-invasive cancer treatment method called boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT) allows for the removal of cancerous tumor cells with the least possible damage to healthy tissue. It involves the exposure of cancer cells with low-energy thermal neutrons, boron-10 (<sup>10</sup>B) cellular uptake causes cancer cell death by producing alpha particles and recoiling lithium-7 (<sup>7</sup> Li) nuclei. Despite positive outcomes from clinical trials conducted all around the world, these substances have relatively limited tumor selectivity or low boron content per molecule. The development of new boron delivery agents with more selectivity and enhanced boron loading would advance this technique and promote its use in clinics as a primary cancer treatment. As peptide-binding cell surface receptors are typically overexpressed on cancer cells, they can be seen as interesting targets for targeted tumor therapy. The attachment of meta-carboranes to peptide conjugates that target tumor cells specifically by their overexpressed receptors may be a method to get around these problems. A state-of-the-art overview of current developments in the application of BNCT for cancer targeted therapy via peptide conjugation is the goal of this review.</p>","PeriodicalId":36934,"journal":{"name":"Nanotheranostics","volume":"8 4","pages":"458-472"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-05-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11217788/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141499230","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Multimodal evaluation of blood-brain barrier opening in mice in response to low-intensity ultrasound and a claudin-5 binder.","authors":"Liyu Chen, Jae Song, Gina Richter-Stretton, Wendy Lee, Pranesh Padmanabhan, Jürgen Götz","doi":"10.7150/ntno.95146","DOIUrl":"10.7150/ntno.95146","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><b>Background:</b> The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a major bottleneck in delivering therapeutics to the brain. Treatment strategies to transiently open this barrier include focused ultrasound combined with intravenously injected microbubbles (FUS<sup>+MB</sup>) and targeting of molecules that regulate BBB permeability. <b>Methods:</b> Here, we investigated BBB opening mediated by the claudin-5 binder cCPEm (a microorganismal toxin in a truncated form) and FUS<sup>+MB</sup> at a centre frequency of 1 MHz, assessing dextran uptake, broadband emission, and endogenous immunoglobulin G (IgG) extravasation. <b>Results:</b> FUS<sup>+MB</sup>-induced BBB opening was detectable at a pressure ≥0.35 MPa when assessed for leakage of 10 and 70 kDa dextran, and at ≥0.2 MPa for uptake of endogenous IgG. Treating mice with 20 mg/kg cCPEm failed to open the BBB, and pre-treatment with cCPEm followed by FUS<sup>+MB</sup> at 0.2 and 0.3 MPa did not overtly increase BBB opening compared to FUS<sup>+MB</sup> alone. Using passive cavitation detection (PCD), we found that broadband emission correlated with the peak negative pressure (PNP) and dextran leakage, indicating the possibility of using broadband emission for developing a feedback controller to monitor BBB opening. <b>Conclusions:</b> Together, our study highlights the challenges in developing combinatorial approaches to open the BBB and presents an additional IgG-based histological detection method for BBB opening.</p>","PeriodicalId":36934,"journal":{"name":"Nanotheranostics","volume":"8 4","pages":"427-441"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-04-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11217787/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141499184","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Dual Functional Magnetic Nanoparticles Conjugated with Carbon Quantum Dots for Hyperthermia and Photodynamic Therapy for Cancer.","authors":"Mounika Choppadandi, Kondi Soumya, Sumanta Ghosh, Aishwarya Balu, Tanvi Shingote, Srivalliputtur Sarath Babu, Vani Sai Prasanna, Somasundaram Arumugam, Ravichandiran Velyutham, Murali M Yallapu, Govinda Kapusetti","doi":"10.7150/ntno.91871","DOIUrl":"10.7150/ntno.91871","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The global incidence of cancer continues to rise, posing a significant public health concern. Although numerous cancer therapies exist, each has limitations and complications. The present study explores alternative cancer treatment approaches, combining hyperthermia and photodynamic therapy (PDT). Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and amine-functionalized carbon quantum dots (A-CQDs) were synthesized separately and then covalently conjugated to form a single nanosystem for combinational therapy (M-CQDs). The successful conjugation was confirmed using zeta potential, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and UV-visible spectroscopy. Morphological examination in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) further verified the conjugation of CQDs with MNPs. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) revealed that M-CQDs contain approximately 12 weight percentages of carbon. Hyperthermia studies showed that both MNP and M-CQDs maintain a constant therapeutic temperature at lower frequencies (260.84 kHz) with high specific absorption rates (SAR) of 118.11 and 95.04 W/g, respectively. In vitro studies demonstrated that MNPs, A-CQDs, and M-CQDs are non-toxic, and combinational therapy (PDT + hyperthermia) resulted in significantly lower cell viability (~4%) compared to individual therapies. Similar results were obtained with Hoechst and propidium iodide (PI) staining assays. Hence, the combination therapy of PDT and hyperthermia shows promise as a potential alternative to conventional therapies, and it could be further explored in combination with existing conventional treatments.</p>","PeriodicalId":36934,"journal":{"name":"Nanotheranostics","volume":"8 4","pages":"442-457"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-04-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11217784/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"141499183","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Targeted Nanotheransotics: Integration of Preclinical MRI and CT in the Molecular Imaging and Therapy of Advanced Diseases.","authors":"Jyoti Bonlawar, Aseem Setia, Ranadheer Reddy Challa, Bhaskar Vallamkonda, Abhishesh Kumar Mehata, Vaishali, Matte Kasi Viswanadh, Madaswamy S Muthu","doi":"10.7150/ntno.95791","DOIUrl":"10.7150/ntno.95791","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The integration of preclinical magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) methods has significantly enhanced the area of therapy and imaging of targeted nanomedicine. Nanotheranostics, which make use of nanoparticles, are a significant advancement in MRI and CT imaging. In addition to giving high-resolution anatomical features and functional information simultaneously, these multifunctional agents improve contrast when used. In addition to enabling early disease detection, precise localization, and personalised therapy monitoring, they also enable early disease detection. Fusion of MRI and CT enables precise in vivo tracking of drug-loaded nanoparticles. MRI, which provides real-time monitoring of nanoparticle distribution, accumulation, and release at the cellular and tissue levels, can be used to assess the efficacy of drug delivery systems. The precise localization of nanoparticles within the body is achievable through the use of CT imaging. This technique enhances the capabilities of MRI by providing high-resolution anatomical information. CT also allows for quantitative measurements of nanoparticle concentration, which is essential for evaluating the pharmacokinetics and biodistribution of nanomedicine. In this article, we emphasize the integration of preclinical MRI and CT into molecular imaging and therapy for advanced diseases.</p>","PeriodicalId":36934,"journal":{"name":"Nanotheranostics","volume":"8 3","pages":"401-426"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-04-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11093717/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140946825","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
NanotheranosticsPub Date : 2024-03-31eCollection Date: 2024-01-01DOI: 10.7150/ntno.87818
Pooja Suryavanshi, Dhananjay Bodas
{"title":"Knockout cancer by nano-delivered immunotherapy using perfusion-aided scaffold-based tumor-on-a-chip.","authors":"Pooja Suryavanshi, Dhananjay Bodas","doi":"10.7150/ntno.87818","DOIUrl":"10.7150/ntno.87818","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Cancer is a multifactorial disease produced by mutations in the oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, which result in uncontrolled cell proliferation and resistance to cell death. Cancer progresses due to the escape of altered cells from immune monitoring, which is facilitated by the tumor's mutual interaction with its microenvironment. Understanding the mechanisms involved in immune surveillance evasion and the significance of the tumor microenvironment might thus aid in developing improved therapies. Although in vivo models are commonly utilized, they could be better for time, cost, and ethical concerns. As a result, it is critical to replicate an in vivo model and recreate the cellular and tissue-level functionalities. A 3D cell culture, which gives a 3D architecture similar to that found in vivo, is an appropriate model. Furthermore, numerous cell types can be cocultured, establishing cellular interactions between TME and tumor cells. Moreover, microfluidics perfusion can provide precision flow rates, thus simulating tissue/organ function. Immunotherapy can be used with the perfused 3D cell culture technique to help develop successful therapeutics. Immunotherapy employing nano delivery can target the spot and silence the responsible genes, ensuring treatment effectiveness while minimizing adverse effects. This study focuses on the importance of 3D cell culture in understanding the pathophysiology of 3D tumors and TME, the function of TME in drug resistance, tumor progression, and the development of advanced anticancer therapies for high-throughput drug screening.</p>","PeriodicalId":36934,"journal":{"name":"Nanotheranostics","volume":"8 3","pages":"380-400"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2024-03-31","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11093718/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140946284","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}