Trees, Forests and People最新文献

{"title":"Cultivation practices, socioeconomic contributions, and challenges of Moringa stenopetala in Southern Ethiopia: A systematic review","authors":"Workalemahu Tsegaye ,&nbsp;Yishak Adgo Kassie","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101219","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101219","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Moringa stenopetala</em> is a fast-growing, drought-tolerant, multipurpose indigenous tree species that plays a critical role in food security, nutrition, income generation, and traditional medicine in southern Ethiopia. The species is particularly important in semi-arid areas where alternative food sources are limited during prolonged dry seasons. Despite its socioeconomic and ecological importance, <em>Moringa stenopetala</em> has received limited scientific and policy attention compared to other Moringa species, particularly <em>Moringa oleifera</em>. This systematic review synthesizes existing literature on cultivation practices, processing methods, socioeconomic contributions, and major challenges associated with <em>Moringa stenopetala</em> in southern Ethiopia. Peer-reviewed journal articles, theses, and institutional reports published between 2000 and 2024 were reviewed using Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar databases. The review indicates that <em>Moringa stenopetala</em> is well adapted to semi-arid environments and contributes significantly to household nutrition, income generation, livestock feed, and cultural practices. However, insect pests, limited processing technologies, weak market access, and inadequate institutional support remain major constraints to its wider utilization.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 101219"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147399964","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Ecological niche dynamics of treeline birches (Betula spp.) under pleistocene - holocene - future climate change in the Caucasus","authors":"Ilia Akobia ,&nbsp;Vasil Metreveli ,&nbsp;Ketevan Ugrekhelidze ,&nbsp;Ketevan Batsatsashvili ,&nbsp;Zurab Javakhishvili ,&nbsp;Nugzar Zazanashvili","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101192","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101192","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Treeline birches (<em>Betula</em> spp.) are key components of subalpine forests in the Caucasus, providing important ecosystem services but facing growing threats from climate change. We applied ecological niche modeling (Maximum Entropy – MaxEnt) to assess birch habitat dynamics across multiple temporal scales: the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM), the Mid-Holocene (MH), the present and future projections for 2100 under three Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSP126, SSP370, SSP585), using MIROC and CMCC-ESM2 climate models. Model performance was high (Area Under the Curve (AUC) &gt; 0.97). Thermal variables, particularly the mean temperature of the warmest (Bio10) and coldest (Bio11) quarters, were the dominant predictors, complemented by seasonal precipitation (Bio18, Bio19). Paleoclimatic reconstructions showed confinement to refugial areas in Colchis and Hyrcania during the LGM, with expansion during the wetter Mid-Holocene. Present conditions represent the ecological optimum, supporting continuous treeline belts along the Greater Caucasus and fragmented patches in the Lesser Caucasus. Future projections revealed strong scenario-dependent shrinkages: SSP126 maintained relative stability, whereas SSP370 and SSP585 indicated losses exceeding 80-95%, leaving only small, isolated refugia at high elevations. These results demonstrate a refugia – recolonization – optimum – shrinkage trajectory and identify the Caucasus ecoregion as both a long-term refugial zone and a climate-sensitive hotspot. Conservation strategies should prioritize refugial strongholds, ecological connectivity and climate-adaptive management to safeguard birch treelines under future climate warming.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 101192"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147400051","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Current status and threatening factors of the critically endangered mangrove fern Acrostichum speciosum in China","authors":"Bingyan Guo ,&nbsp;Hongjuan Zhu ,&nbsp;Wending Zeng ,&nbsp;Manman Chen ,&nbsp;Xialan Cheng ,&nbsp;Yougen Wu ,&nbsp;Ya Liu ,&nbsp;Jing Yu ,&nbsp;Dongmei Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101177","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101177","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Acrostichum speciosum</em>, a critically endangered mangrove fern in China, faces severe population decline with poorly understood mechanisms. We combined field quadrat surveys, reproductive experiments, and genotyping-by-sequencing across its Chinese range to investigate its community ecology, population structure, and genetic diversity. The species inhabits species-poor communities, though Zhanjiang supported higher diversity than Wenchang. While population structures were stable, regeneration was limited by scarce juveniles. The Zhanjiang population demonstrated superior density, cover, and vigor. The fern exhibits slow growth, high disease susceptibility, and critically low reproductive efficiency—evidenced by minimal spore germination (3.78%), low seedling establishment (6.38%), and prolonged gametophyte development (240 days). Genetically, populations were significantly differentiated. Despite high overall diversity and heterozygote excess, nucleotide diversity positively correlated with community diversity, and both were reduced by human activities. We conclude that anthropogenic pressures, combined with intrinsically low reproductive efficiency and slow regeneration, drive its endangerment. Conservation should prioritize the robust Zhanjiang population, minimize anthropogenic disturbance in Wenchang, and enhance gene flow through assisted introduction and rapid propagation techniques.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 101177"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147400604","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Modeling structural attributes and carbon stock in subtropical wooded savannas using machine learning and multi-source data","authors":"Andrés Baietto ,&nbsp;Rafael María Navarro-Cerrillo ,&nbsp;Carolina Toranza ,&nbsp;Patricia Brussa ,&nbsp;Matías Mañana ,&nbsp;Mauricio Bonifacino ,&nbsp;Andrés Hirigoyen","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101187","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101187","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Savannas are significant global carbon sinks that are increasingly threatened by land-use change. In Uruguay, subtropical wooded savannas cover approximately 100,000 ha and are the focus of conservation and climate change mitigation efforts. In this context, assessing woody species structure and carbon stock is important for the sustainable management of this ecosystem. This study integrates a global canopy height model (CHM), satellite-based multispectral data, and a global soil dataset to model diameter at breast height (DBH), mean height (H), maximum height (MAXH), and above-ground carbon stock (AGC) of woody species from subtropical wooded savannas using machine learning algorithms. Data from 64 plots of the National Forest Inventory of Uruguay were employed to train and validate four algorithms: random forest (RF), support vector machine (SVM), gradient boosting machine (GBM), and k-nearest neighbors (KNN). Height-related variables were primarily influenced by CHM features, whereas DBH and AGC required a complementary combination of data from all sources. The nested spatial 10-fold cross-validation showed that RF outperformed for DBH (R² = 0.44, RMSE = 2.80 cm), H (R² = 0.59, RMSE = 0.53 m), and AGC (R² = 0.51, RMSE = 8.71 Mg ha^-1), whereas GBM performed best for MAXH (R² = 0.59, RMSE = 0.97 m). Nationwide maps revealed a right-skewed distribution of all variables, reflecting the predominance of small trees, possibly due to historical disturbances. The present results provide a valuable baseline for defining conservation strategies, monitoring ecosystem changes, and promoting the sustainable management of subtropical wooded savannas as carbon sinks.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 101187"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147400615","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Predicting socioeconomic drivers of deforestation in Murree forest region, Pakistan using statistical inference and machine learning approach","authors":"Muhammad Safdar Hussain ,&nbsp;John W. Groninger ,&nbsp;Kofi Akamani","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101195","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101195","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Rapid deforestation in Pakistan poses severe environmental challenges, threatening the fragile ecosystem, altering the hydrological cycle, intensifying the risk of flash flooding and contributing to climate change. The socioeconomic drivers of deforestation in Pakistan, particularly in mixed state and community forest landscapes, remain poorly understood. This study investigates the socioeconomic drivers of deforestation in the Murree Forest Region, Pakistan using statistical inference and machine learning models: Support Vector Machine (SVM), Random Forest (RF) and Logistic Regression. Descriptive statistics revealed that a total of 84.3 % of respondents were landholders in Murree, with Business (43.8 %) and Government employment (32.7 %) as primary sources of income. Approximately 72.5 % of respondents collect 1–25 kg of fuelwood daily, while 2.4 % collect &gt;90 kg of fuelwood per day. Logistic regression identified fuelwood collection, inadequate education, forest fire, proximity to forest, and illegal logging as perceived major drivers of deforestation (<em>p</em>&lt; 0.001). Moderation analysis indicated that education did not change the perceived effect of fuelwood on deforestation. Machine learning models demonstrated strong predictive performance, with SVM achieving the best performance. Feature importance analysis consistently identified illegal logging, forest fire, livelihood dependence, proximity to forest, and poor governance as the most influential predictors. These findings highlight that the hybrid analytical approach enhanced the accuracy of identifying the perceived drivers of deforestation. This approach may be used to inform community and government-centered interventions aimed to mitigate deforestation by addressing perceptions regarding forest use and deforestation.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 101195"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147400616","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"From competition to complementarity: growth mechanisms and structural drivers in pure and mixed silver fir–beech stands of southern Italy","authors":"Pasquale A. Marziliano,&nbsp;Maria F. Cataldo,&nbsp;Elisabetta Emo,&nbsp;Michele Mercuri,&nbsp;Salvatore F. Papandrea","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101191","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101191","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Mixed-species forests are increasingly promoted to improve forest functioning, yet their growth responses depend strongly on site conditions, stand structure, and management legacies, particularly in Mediterranean mountain environments. This study investigates how species mixture, stand structure, competition, and site conditions jointly influence tree growth and productivity in silver fir–beech forests of southern Italy. We combined stand-level indicators (current annual increment, recruitment period, structural diversity indices) with tree-level growth analyses based on basal area increment and linear mixed-effects models, comparing pure and mixed stands across three montane sites characterized by contrasting environmental conditions and management histories. Mixed stands showed higher productivity than monospecific stands, with increased current annual increment, shorter recruitment periods, and greater structural complexity. Linear mixed-effects modelling identified tree size, height, competition intensity, species identity, and stand mixture as key drivers of growth. Both species benefited from mixture, although silver fir showed a stronger positive response, with 12–15% higher Basal Area Increment (BAI) in mixed stands compared to pure stands, while beech gains were more moderate (5–8%). Structural diversity, quantified by Shannon and Gini indices, was markedly higher in mixed stands, indicating enhanced size differentiation and resource-use complementarity. Overall, the results demonstrate that productivity gains in silver fir–beech forests arise from the interaction between species mixture, stand structure, competition, and site-specific conditions. Species mixture enhances individual-tree growth primarily by modulating competitive interactions, with the magnitude of benefits varying across sites according to structural and management-related constraints. These findings provide quantitative support for site-adapted management strategies that promote mixed and structural diverse forests in Mediterranean mountain regions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 101191"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147400703","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Adapting water management along forest roads to climate change: A survey study among German experts","authors":"Christopher Pohle,&nbsp;Dirk Jaeger","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101200","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101200","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Progressing climate change makes it imperative to adapt existing forest road systems. Decentralizing drainage with the aim to reduce accumulation of surface run-off is expected to enhance the availability of water in forest ecosystems and to mitigate risks of road damage and flooding.</div><div>To identify and evaluate potential and relevant measures for managing road run-off, we conducted a survey among eleven German forest road experts. The questionnaire covered 42 questions over five categories: (1) Road decommissioning, (2) Segments prone to damage by water due to gradient, (3) Ditch relief, (4) Crossing structures, and (5) Timber extraction. Participants were recruited from the “committee for forest access” and have extensive experience (mean of 19 years) with practical measures for drainage and water management. Their accumulated area of operation (2.2 Mio. ha) is representative of 19.1% of the forested land in Germany.</div><div>Our survey showed that most experts incorporate measures for adapting forest road infrastructure to climate change. Of the eleven experts consulted in this study, nine actively pursue reduced ditch relief culvert spacing. Further measures mentioned include using off-take-ditches, adapting stream crossings to increased peak flows, intensifying maintenance, and disconnecting ditches and streams. Roads with an outsloped cross-sectional profile and the decommissioning of road segments in general, are not preferred strategies.</div><div>Besides discussing survey results, potential follow-up research possibilities are presented. The development of specialized GIS tools could facilitate the practical implementation of the proposed measures. While this study’s results reflect the input of only a select few experts, the results help to outline existing measures for managing forest road systems under climate change conditions and support decision makers in other regions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 101200"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147400716","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Mixed plantations of Alnus formosana and Pinus massoniana improve ecosystem multifunctionality than monoculture plantations","authors":"Luocan Zhou ,&nbsp;Linjuan Huang ,&nbsp;Jingzhong Shi ,&nbsp;Yandi Qin ,&nbsp;Lihui Deng ,&nbsp;Shiyao Liang ,&nbsp;Qile Tang ,&nbsp;Guoqiang Tang ,&nbsp;Wenhui Shen ,&nbsp;Zhangqiang Tan ,&nbsp;Weichao Teng","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101171","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101171","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Long-term management of <em>Pinus massoniana</em> monoculture faces significant challenges, including low productivity, nutrient depletion, and weakened ecological functions. <em>Alnus formosana</em>, a native nitrogen-fixing species in southern China, can increase soil fertility and accelerates nutrient cycling. However, the impact of its mixed cultivation with <em>P. massoniana</em> on ecosystem multifunctionality (EMF) remains unclear. This study assessed tree growth, soil characteristics, enzyme activity, and EMF in monocultures and mixed forests at 1:2, 1:1, and 2:1 ratios (APP, AP, and AAP). Results showed that mixed-species treatment significantly increased tree growth index (TGI) of <em>A. formosana</em> but decreased that of <em>P. massoniana</em> (<em>P</em>&lt;0.05)<em>.</em> In mixed forests, <em>A. formosana</em> had higher diameter at breast height (DBH), tree height (TH), crown width (CW), clear bole height (CBH) and tree volume (V) than <em>P. massoniana</em>, and exhibited stronger competitive effects (Slope-A=1.12∼1.27) on DBH and CW compared to <em>P. massoniana</em> (Slope-P=0.65∼0.96). Soil quality index (SQI) and EMF significantly increased in mixed forests than in monocultures, as evidenced by higher soil C- and N-acquisition enzyme activities and related nutrients. In mixed forests, TGI was positively correlated with SQI of <em>A. formosana</em> but negatively correlated with that of <em>P. massoniana</em>, which led to the growth of <em>A. formosana</em> being more sensitive to available nutrients (nitrate nitrogen, available phosphorus, and ammonium nitrogen), while the growth of <em>P. massoniana</em> was more reliant on soil total nutrients (total nitrogen and total phosphorus). Notably, <em>A. formosana</em> exhibited the highest TGI, SQI, and EMF in the AAP treatment. Thus, the 2:1 (AAP) mixing ratio is recommended for the scientific management of <em>P. massoniana</em> and <em>A. formosana</em> mixed forests.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 101171"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146057628","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Towards precision forestry: A systematic review of optimisation methods for individual-tree decisions in forest management","authors":"Niál Perry ,&nbsp;Janine Schweier ,&nbsp;Leo Gallus Bont ,&nbsp;Sunni Kanta Prasad Kushwaha ,&nbsp;Heli Peltola ,&nbsp;Kyle Eyvindson ,&nbsp;Rasmus Astrup ,&nbsp;Melissa Chapman ,&nbsp;Clemens Blattert","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101226","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101226","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Societal demands for forest biodiversity and ecosystem services (BES) are growing and diversifying, which necessitates careful decision-making in forest management. Optimisation methods can support the decision-making process and resolve trade-offs between various BES objectives, and are successfully applied for forest management at the stand and landscape levels. However, there is an increasing interest in optimising management planning at an even finer resolution: the individual-tree level. This systematic review summarises the studies that optimise individual-tree decisions in forest management, taking individual-tree data as input and prescribing a management decision for every tree as the output. Tree-level management planning directly incorporates relevant tree attributes into the planning process - rather than relying on aggregated proxies - and complements developments in precision forestry, remote sensing and autonomous forest machines. We identified 47 relevant studies, which use diverse optimisation techniques such as heuristic algorithms, mathematical programming and machine learning. Several management targets and constraints (e.g., economic value, biodiversity and the structural features of the forest) have been addressed in the studies. Rich information about individual trees is available, although the attributes typically gathered during field inventory, like species, tree height and diameter at breast height, are still the most commonly used in decision-making. Identified directions for future research are to integrate natural disturbance risk predisposition, link tree-level optimisation with management plans at larger spatial scales and develop the real-world implementation of the individual-tree decisions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 101226"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147448585","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Variation of tree diversity, structure and composition in the different forest types of Eastern Himalaya, India","authors":"Samjetsabam Bharati Devi ,&nbsp;Suratna Sur Shan Sher Sherpa ,&nbsp;Kumar Manish ,&nbsp;Kishor Sharma","doi":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101217","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.tfp.2026.101217","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Despite high biodiversity and endemism and decades of research, the tree diversity of the Eastern Himalaya remains poorly understood. To fulfill this gap, we examined the patterns of the alpha and beta diversity and tree community structure in the Darjeeling area of the Eastern Himalaya. We conducted primary vegetation sampling focused on the tree strata within 3 protected areas, including National Park (NP) and Wildlife Sanctuary (WLS) of the Darjeeling Himalaya, India. The study sites included Mahananda WLS, Neora Valley NP, and the lower and upper ranges of Singalila NP. A total of 32 sampling plots (each 200 m x 200 m) were established across these sites, within which 128 quadrats (20 m × 20 m) were laid out for detailed vegetation analysis. Within each quadrat, all trees with a girth at breast height (GBH) of ≥ 10 cm were measured and identified. We recorded a total of 2137 individuals belonging to 65 tree species, 47 genera and 31 families in our study. Out of all the recorded tree species, 5 species were found endemic to the Eastern Himalayan region, and 4 globally threatened as per the IUCN Red List. We observed the highest alpha and beta diversity in the temperate forests of lower Singalila NP. Tree basal area and the density were highest in the tropical moist deciduous forests of Mahananda WLS and the sub-alpine forests of upper Singalila NP, respectively. The study sites showed distinct tree community assemblages with high beta diversity determined by substitution components. We identified 27 indicator tree species (including 23 species from single sites) with significantly high Indicator Value (IndVal) across the different forest types of the Darjeeling Himalaya. We conclude that different forest types in the Darjeeling Himalaya support a high diversity and a unique assemblage of trees, including endemics. For efficient conservation of plant diversity in the Himalaya, there is an urgent need to create more protected areas.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":36104,"journal":{"name":"Trees, Forests and People","volume":"24 ","pages":"Article 101217"},"PeriodicalIF":2.9,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147448586","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}