Open Mind最新文献

{"title":"Expectations of Reciprocal Generosity Are Specific to Equal Relationships.","authors":"Alicia M Chen, Rebecca Saxe","doi":"10.1162/OPMI.a.357","DOIUrl":"10.1162/OPMI.a.357","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>When someone acts generously, what expectations does this create? Classic theories and experiments emphasize reciprocity: the idea that generosity will be returned by the recipient. Yet daily-life and ethnographic observations often show a different pattern: generosity sets a precedent, leading people to expect the same person to be generous again. Across six online behavioral experiments (total <i>N</i> = 599 U.S. adults) using third-party vignette judgments and first-person incentivized economic games, we test when generosity creates expectations of reciprocation versus a precedent. We found that people expected reciprocity only in equal or symmetric relationships. Otherwise, they expected generosity to continue from the same actor. These expectations generalized across roles, contexts, and cost structures. Taken together, the results suggest that classic evidence on reciprocity and turn-taking may capture expectations among strangers or equals, but not the wider set of relationships that structure much of social life.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"10 ","pages":"787-807"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-06-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13249465/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148220005","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Curriculum Learning in Humans and Neural Networks.","authors":"Younes Strittmatter, Stefano Sarao Mannelli, Miguel Ruiz-Garcia, Sebastian Musslick, Markus Wolfgang Hermann Spitzer","doi":"10.1162/OPMI.a.355","DOIUrl":"10.1162/OPMI.a.355","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The sequencing of training trials can significantly influence learning outcomes in humans and neural networks. However, studies comparing the effects of training curricula between the two have typically focused on the acquisition of multiple tasks. Here, we investigate curriculum learning in a single perceptual decision-making task, examining whether the behavior of a parsimonious network trained on different curricula would be replicated in human participants (<i>n</i> = 200). Our results show that progressively increasing task difficulty during training facilitates learning compared to training at a fixed level of difficulty or at random. Furthermore, a sequence designed to hamper learning in a parsimonious neural network network also impaired learning in humans. As such, our findings indicate qualitative similarities between neural networks and humans in curriculum learning for perceptual decision-making, suggesting the former can serve as a viable computational model of the latter.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"10 ","pages":"739-753"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-05-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13233094/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148164758","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Response Time as a Proxy for Decision Confidence: Insights From Type-2 ROC Analysis.","authors":"Kiyofumi Miyoshi, Dobromir Rahnev, Hakwan Lau","doi":"10.1162/OPMI.a.352","DOIUrl":"10.1162/OPMI.a.352","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This study explores the use of response time (RT) data in type-2 receiver operating characteristic (ROC) analysis, a method traditionally used to examine the relationship between confidence and response correctness. Analyses of 16 perceptual decision-making datasets revealed that: (1) RT data contains roughly two-thirds as much information about response correctness as confidence; (2) RT carries unique predictive power for response correctness, independent of confidence; (3) RT and confidence interact synergistically, with confidence becoming a stronger predictor of response correctness when RT is short; (4) Despite these unique properties of RT, type-2 sensitivity (meta-d') derived from RT and confidence showed a reasonably high correlation across subjects. These findings carry two key implications. First, in the absence of confidence data, RT can serve as a viable proxy, incurring minimal cognitive and logistical costs. This makes type-2 analysis feasible across various settings, potentially including infant and animal studies. Second, when both RT and confidence data are available, their combined use in type-2 analysis offers complementary insights into the processes underlying subjects' behavior. To illustrate this, we present a simulation showing how the observed behavioral patterns align with the two-stage dynamic signal detection model. We propose that RT-based type-2 analysis is a valuable tool for researchers, helping to uncover previously underexplored aspects of decision-making behavior.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"10 ","pages":"673-695"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-05-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13233096/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148164818","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Impact of Education and Music Training on the Development of Abstract Thinking in the First Years of Schooling.","authors":"Théo Morfoisse, Séverine Becuwe, Marie Palu, Cassandra Potier Watkins, Ghislaine Dehaene-Lambertz, Stanislas Dehaene","doi":"10.1162/OPMI.a.354","DOIUrl":"10.1162/OPMI.a.354","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Plato's Republic, Einstein's Theory of relativity, Vivaldi's Four Seasons are all remarkable examples of humans' unique ability to create and manipulate complex abstract structures, whether in language, mathematics, or music. Yet the mechanisms by which children develop such abstract thinking, and the role of education and structured experiences such as musical practice in shaping these abilities remains unclear. To explore these questions, we conducted cross-sectional behavioral experiments with 528 children aged 4 to 8, spanning four educational grades, half of whom participated in a violin training program, from age four. Two experiments examined how children encode, process, and compress auditory sequences and visual patterns, while a third examined their sensitivity to geometric regularities. Our results reveal the emergence of symbolic reasoning as early as the start of formal schooling, with deeper abstraction as a function of grade. By first grade, children encoded complex auditory sequences within a Language of Thought (LoT) similar to adults. Additionally, when confronted with quadrilaterals, children showed increasing sensitivity to geometric regularities, suggesting a developmental transition from perceptual to symbolic reasoning. However, we did not observe significant impact of musical practice on abstraction abilities across any of the domains tested. We discuss whether and how the impact of education and extracurricular activities such as music could be enhanced.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"10 ","pages":"707-738"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-05-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13233093/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148164770","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Where You Look Is What You Get: Individual Fixation Height Predicts Biases in Face Perception.","authors":"Zeynep Ceyda Demirkan, Maximilian D Broda, Benjamin de Haas","doi":"10.1162/OPMI.a.353","DOIUrl":"10.1162/OPMI.a.353","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Individuals show robust differences in where they look on a face. Some fixate closer to the eyes while others fixate closer to the mouth. While humans infer mental states and traits from specific facial regions and their expressions, such idiosyncratic gaze patterns may shape how individual features contribute to the overall impression of a face. We hypothesized that an individual's habitual fixation behavior biases their impression of a face to be aligned more closely with the region they most often foveate. To test this idea, we analyzed fixation patterns on faces in a scene viewing task and independent perceptual judgments regarding valence, arousal, trustworthiness, dominance, and attractiveness for whole faces and face parts. A linear mixed-effects model confirmed that habitual fixation proximity to eyes, nose, and mouth explained individual differences in how well ratings for whole faces were aligned with those for the corresponding isolated feature. Building on this finding, we ran a second experiment to test whether individual differences in face fixations can predict diverging impressions of trustworthiness in appropriately manipulated images. Observers reported which of two consecutively presented versions of a subtly manipulated face they perceived to be more trustworthy. Consistent with our hypothesis, individuals who tend to fixate lower down or higher up were weakly biased to prefer versions of the face with a more trustworthy bottom or top, respectively. Together, our findings indicate that individual differences in gaze can systematically bias our sometimes-diverging impression of a face.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"10 ","pages":"696-706"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-05-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13235966/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148200265","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Child-Directed Speech Facilitates Semantic Role Learning: A Machine Learning Approach.","authors":"Eva Huber, Balthasar Bickel, Sabine Stoll","doi":"10.1162/OPMI.a.351","DOIUrl":"10.1162/OPMI.a.351","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Semantic roles, namely the agent ('doer') and patient ('undergoer') roles, are fundamental to language acquisition, as they enable learners to map meaning onto syntactic structure. Grammars typically impose a binary classification on how these roles map onto syntactic functions. These functions are encoded through features such as agreement, case marking and word order, which children gradually acquire through exposure to their linguistic environment. Notably, child-directed speech constitutes a primary source of linguistic input during acquisition (Hart & Risley, 1995; Weisleder & Fernald, 2013). At present, little is known about the effects of child-directed speech on the learning of semantic roles and even less in languages with diverse grammatical features. Here, we investigate whether child-directed speech facilitates the learning of semantic roles, specifically examining whether it enhances semantic role interpretation compared to adult-directed speech. We examine English and Russian, two languages, which differ fundamentally in how they encode semantic roles, thereby presenting distinct challenges for the language-learning child. We use artificial neural language models to analyse the statistical properties of naturalistic child-directed and adult-directed speech, testing which register more effectively facilitates semantic role learning. In Study 1, we examine whether semantic roles are more easily classified in naturalistic utterances from child-directed speech than adult-directed speech. In Study 2, we test which register better supports learning and generalising semantic roles by evaluating language models trained on either register on the same controlled test set. Study 1 shows that semantic roles are more easily classified in child-directed speech than adult-directed speech, with a more pronounced effect in Russian than in English. This suggests that child-directed speech may be optimised more strongly in a language where semantic roles are expressed in more varied forms and positions, as is the case in Russian. Study 2 shows that the knowledge of semantic roles can be generalised by the models to structures that do not frequently occur in either child-directed speech or adult-directed speech, and that, on the whole, this is more successful based on input from child-directed speech than adult-directed speech in both languages. Our results provide first evidence that child-directed speech is tailored to the language-specific needs of children, facilitating the acquisition of semantic roles, which are a prerequisite for the acquisition of syntax. These findings show that child-directed speech actively supports the acquisition of of semantic roles, helping children map meaning onto syntactic structure.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"10 ","pages":"641-672"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13183351/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147975979","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Associations Between Second-Language Proficiency and Executive Functions in Autistic and Neurotypical Children.","authors":"Franziska Baumeister, Pauline Wolfer, Elisabet Vila Borrellas, Ehsan Solaimani, Inge-Marie Eigsti, Stephanie Durrleman","doi":"10.1162/OPMI.a.349","DOIUrl":"10.1162/OPMI.a.349","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Bilingualism is a complex experience that may enhance executive functions (EF). This potential benefit could be particularly relevant for autistic children, given that they tend to present EF difficulties. Some studies find bilingualism benefits in attention, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, and memory, in neurotypical and autistic children while others do not. These inconsistencies may arise from oversimplifying the operationalization of bilingualism, obscuring the mechanisms underlying its effects on EF. This study used continuous measures to operationalize bilingualism and test its links with EF. Bayesian multilevel modeling showed that higher second language proficiency in 168 autistic (<i>M</i> = 8;3) and 262 neurotypical (<i>M</i> = 7;8) children was associated with better attention and working memory in neurotypical children and better attention, short-term memory, working memory, and shifting abilities in autistic children.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"10 ","pages":"613-640"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13233095/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148164794","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"When Numbers Whisper Their Names - Number Word Processing in Multi-Digit Number Magnitude Comparison in French Speakers.","authors":"Roman Janssen, André Knops, Arnaud Viarouge, Elise Klein","doi":"10.1162/OPMI.a.350","DOIUrl":"10.1162/OPMI.a.350","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>French number words provide a unique window into the relationship between numerical cognition and language, because numbers above 60 follow a vigesimal (base-20) word structure (e.g., 72 = \"60-12\"). In a two-digit magnitude comparison task with sixty French native speakers, we replicated the classic unit-decade compatibility effect (UDCE; slower responses when unit and decade comparisons conflict) and within-decade effect (faster responses when decades are identical), reflecting the place-value structure of Arabic numerals. Given the French vigesimal system, we expected not only the classic UDCE and within-decade effect but also their vigesimal counterparts driven by magnitudes of number words: a unit-vigintade compatibility effect (UVCE) and a within-vigintade effect, in which pairs sharing the same decade word (e.g., \"soixante\" for the 60s and 70s) are processed faster than other between-decade pairs. Linear mixed models revealed both a UDCE for numbers larger than 60 and a UVCE, indicating that number words were accessed during processing. Participants also responded faster to within-vigintade items (86 vs. 95) than to between-vigintade items (76 vs. 85) and as fast as to within-decade items (82 vs. 85), indicating a verbal equivalent of the within-decade effect. This effect is unaffected by decade distance and can only be explained by access to number words so that the decades were identical (\"80-6\" vs. \"80-15\"). Overall, our data indicate that verbal representations can shape basic numerical judgments and that number processing may be more closely tied to language than previously assumed.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"10 ","pages":"594-612"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13183350/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147976080","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Shared and Individual Tuning Curves for Social Perception.","authors":"Rekha S Varrier, Zishan Su, Qi Liang, Tory G Benson, Eshin Jolly, Emily S Finn","doi":"10.1162/OPMI.a.347","DOIUrl":"10.1162/OPMI.a.347","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Stimuli with light are clearly visual; stimuli with sound are clearly auditory. But what makes a stimulus \"social\", and how do socialness judgments differ across people? Here, we characterize group-level and individual thresholds for perceiving the presence and nature of a social interaction. We leverage the fact that humans see social interactions-e.g., chasing, playing, fighting-even in very un-lifelike stimuli, i.e., animations of geometric shapes. Unlike most prior work that used hand-crafted stimuli, we exploit these animations' most advantageous property: their visual features are fully parameterizable. Using this property, we construct psychophysics-inspired \"social tuning curves\" for individuals. We find not only that simple visual features influence social perception, but also that the exact shape of the tuning curve is unique to and stable within each person. Further, individual differences in tuning curves are related to socio-affective traits. Our approach lays the foundation to study how social percepts emerge from interactions between features of a stimulus and features of an individual observer.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"10 ","pages":"567-593"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13182555/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147975964","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? Speakers Use More Redundant Color Adjectives When Speaking to Children Than Adults.","authors":"Maya Taliaferro, Laura Schulz","doi":"10.1162/OPMI.a.348","DOIUrl":"10.1162/OPMI.a.348","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Cross-culturally, the evolution and production of color words has been linked to communicative efficiency. In visual search tasks for instance, speakers will direct a listener to a target by referring to both its color and shape even when all the targets are unique. Moreover, speakers produce these redundant color adjectives more in languages where they precede the noun, like English, than in ones where they are postnominal, like Spanish. These results are consistent with an Incremental Collaborative Efficiency Hypothesis: the proposal that speakers are sensitive to listeners' online processing demands. If this is the case, speakers should be especially likely to produce redundant color adjectives for children, since children's visual search is especially slow. Here we show that English (Experiment 1) and Spanish-speaking (Experiment 2) adults, and parents and non-parents alike (Experiment 3), selectively generate redundant color adjectives for children. This is not because of a general bias towards being over-informative with children: when redundant color adjectives are uninformative and would not promote efficient search, speakers are no more likely to use them with children than adults (Experiment 4). Finally, children's own use of redundant color adjectives for efficient communication changes over development. Four to ten-year-olds are less likely to produce redundant color adjectives than adults but nonetheless do so selectively when addressing younger children (Experiments 5 and 6). Collectively, these results suggest that sensitivity to listeners' online processing demands is robust, emerges relatively early in development, and may especially benefit young learners.</p>","PeriodicalId":32558,"journal":{"name":"Open Mind","volume":"10 ","pages":"547-566"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13124010/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147783293","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}