Toxins最新文献_第3页

A Review of Decontamination of Aspergillus spp. and Aflatoxin Control for Grains and Nuts with Atmospheric Cold Plasma.

IF 3.9 3区医学

Toxins Pub Date : 2025-03-10 DOI: 10.3390/toxins17030129

Miral Javed, Wei Cao, Linyi Tang, Kevin M Keener

{"title":"A Review of Decontamination of Aspergillus spp. and Aflatoxin Control for Grains and Nuts with Atmospheric Cold Plasma.","authors":"Miral Javed, Wei Cao, Linyi Tang, Kevin M Keener","doi":"10.3390/toxins17030129","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17030129","url":null,"abstract":"Aspergillus spp. and their produced aflatoxins are responsible for contaminating 25-30% of the global food supply, including many grains, and nuts which when consumed are detrimental to human and animal health. Despite regulatory frameworks, Aspergillus spp. and aflatoxin contamination is still a global challenge, especially in cereal-based matrices and their derived by-products. The methods for reducing Aspergillus spp. and aflatoxin contamination involve various approaches, including physical, chemical, and biological control strategies. Recently, a novel technology, atmospheric cold plasma (ACP), has emerged which can reduce mold populations and also degrade these toxins. ACP is a non-thermal technology that operates at room temperature and atmospheric pressure. It can reduce mold and toxins from grains and seeds without affecting food quality or leaving any chemical residue. ACP is the conversion of a gas, such as air, into a reactive gas. Specifically, an electrical charge is applied to the \"working\" gas (air) leading to the breakdown of diatomic oxygen, diatomic nitrogen, and water vapor into a mixture of radicals (e.g., atomic oxygen, atomic nitrogen, atomic hydrogen, hydroxyls), metastable species, and ions (e.g., nitrate, nitrite, peroxynitrate). In a cold plasma process, approximately 5% or less of the working gas is ionized. However, cold plasma treatment can generate over 1000 ppm of reactive gas species (RGS). The final result is a range of bactericidal and fungicidal molecules such as ozone, peroxides, nitrates, and many others. This review provides an overview of the mechanisms and chemistry of ACP and its application in inactivating Aspergillus spp. and degrading aflatoxins, serving as a novel treatment to enhance the safety and quality of grains and nuts. The final section of the review discusses the commercialization status of ACP treatment.","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11945501/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143731367","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Transcriptomic Characterization of the Porcine Urinary Bladder Trigone Following Intravesical Administration of Resiniferatoxin: Insights from High-Throughput Sequencing.

IF 3.9 3区医学

Toxins Pub Date : 2025-03-09 DOI: 10.3390/toxins17030127

Ewa Lepiarczyk, Mateusz Maździarz, Łukasz Paukszto, Agnieszka Bossowska, Mariusz Majewski, Jerzy Kaleczyc, Elżbieta Łopieńska-Biernat, Łukasz Jaśkiewicz, Agnieszka Skowrońska, Mariusz T Skowroński, Marta Majewska

{"title":"Transcriptomic Characterization of the Porcine Urinary Bladder Trigone Following Intravesical Administration of Resiniferatoxin: Insights from High-Throughput Sequencing.","authors":"Ewa Lepiarczyk, Mateusz Maździarz, Łukasz Paukszto, Agnieszka Bossowska, Mariusz Majewski, Jerzy Kaleczyc, Elżbieta Łopieńska-Biernat, Łukasz Jaśkiewicz, Agnieszka Skowrońska, Mariusz T Skowroński, Marta Majewska","doi":"10.3390/toxins17030127","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17030127","url":null,"abstract":"Resiniferatoxin (RTX), a potent capsaicin analog, is being investigated as a therapeutic agent for neurogenic conditions, particularly those affecting bladder control. However, the transcriptomic effects of RTX on the urinary bladder remain largely unexplored. This study aimed to characterize the transcriptomic changes in the porcine urinary bladder trigone region removed seven days post-treatment with intravesical RTX administration (500 nmol per animal in 60 mL of 5% aqueous solution of ethyl alcohol). High-throughput sequencing identified 126 differentially expressed genes (DEGs; 66 downregulated, 60 upregulated), 5 differentially expressed long non-coding RNAs (DELs), and 22 other RNAs, collectively involved in 175 gene ontology (GO) processes. Additionally, differential alternative splicing events (DASes) and single nucleotide variants (SNVs) were detected. RTX significantly modulated signaling pathways related to nerve growth and myelination. Changes in genes associated with synaptic plasticity and neuromodulation were observed, particularly within serotoninergic and cholinergic signaling. RTX altered the expression of immune-related genes, particularly those involved in chemokine signaling and immune regulation. Notably, altered gene expression patterns suggest a potential anti-cancer role for RTX. These findings provide new insights into RTX's therapeutic effects beyond TRPV1 receptor interactions, filling a critical gap in our understanding of its molecular impact on bladder tissue.","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11946646/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143731737","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Excretion Routes of Okadaic Acid and Dinophysistoxin-2 from Mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Cockles (Cerastoderma edule).

IF 3.9 3区医学

Toxins Pub Date : 2025-03-09 DOI: 10.3390/toxins17030128

Juan Blanco, Noelia Estévez-Calvar, Helena Martín

{"title":"Excretion Routes of Okadaic Acid and Dinophysistoxin-2 from Mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and Cockles (Cerastoderma edule).","authors":"Juan Blanco, Noelia Estévez-Calvar, Helena Martín","doi":"10.3390/toxins17030128","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17030128","url":null,"abstract":"The knowledge of the routes of excretion of the toxins accumulated by molluscs is a key step in designing methods that accelerate depuration. In this work, the excretion route, in mussels and cockles, of the main diarrhetic shellfish poisoning (DSP) toxins in Europe (okadaic acid and dinophysistoxin-2) after natural intoxication were studied. During depuration, the amounts of free toxins and their derivatives were quantified in bivalves, faeces, and water. Most toxins (>98%) were excreted through faeces as acyl derivatives (most likely 7-O-acyl esters), independent of the ratio between these derivatives and free toxins in soft tissues. The small proportion of toxins excreted into water mostly constituted the free forms of the toxins. Both species shared the same route even though they contained very different proportions of free toxins in their soft tissues. No substantial changes in this general pattern were observed during the experiment. The esters of fatty acids with 16 carbon atoms were the most abundant in both soft tissues and faeces, but they were not the same in mussels and cockles. Most of the variability in ester proportions can be attributed to the species more than to their differential excretion (water or faeces) suggesting that there are not large differences in the depuration of the different esters.","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11945354/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143731720","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Learnings from Separate Aconitum Poisonings in British Columbia and Ontario, Canada in 2022.

IF 3.9 3区医学

Toxins Pub Date : 2025-03-07 DOI: 10.3390/toxins17030125

Lorraine McIntyre, Stefanie Georgopoulos, Dorianna Simone, Emily Newhouse, JoAnne Fernandes, David A McVea, Arnold Fok, Ania-Maria McIntyre, Bryn Shurmer, Marie-Claude Gagnon, Michael Chan, Marina Chiaravalloti, Nikita Saha Turna, Debra Kent, Dennis Leong, Katherine Paphitis, Christina Lee, The Outbreak Investigation Teams

{"title":"Learnings from Separate Aconitum Poisonings in British Columbia and Ontario, Canada in 2022.","authors":"Lorraine McIntyre, Stefanie Georgopoulos, Dorianna Simone, Emily Newhouse, JoAnne Fernandes, David A McVea, Arnold Fok, Ania-Maria McIntyre, Bryn Shurmer, Marie-Claude Gagnon, Michael Chan, Marina Chiaravalloti, Nikita Saha Turna, Debra Kent, Dennis Leong, Katherine Paphitis, Christina Lee, The Outbreak Investigation Teams","doi":"10.3390/toxins17030125","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17030125","url":null,"abstract":"Background: Three aconitine poisoning events occurred in two Canadian provinces in 2022: one in British Columbia (BC) and two in Ontario (ON). Aconitine is a potent alkaloid found in several species of the plant Aconitum, containing cardiotoxins and neurotoxins. It is used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for pain management, and in powdered form, Aconitum is similar in appearance to sand ginger (Kaempferia galanga), which can lead to poisonings from misidentification and mislabeling.Methods: Aconitine poisoning is rare in Canada; here, we compare communications, collaborations, laboratory testing options and actions during investigations.Results: Fourteen cases occurred from the consumption of sand ginger: in BC (n = 2), purchased at an Asian health food store; in ON (n = 11), Kaempferia galanga powder (KGP) spices were used to prepare meals at a restaurant, and in one ON case, KGP was purchased. Traceback found product imported from China contained aconitine levels ranging from 1304 to 5500 ppm. Later investigations revealed mislabeling of Aconitum as KGP from the same imported lot (January 2020). Plant DNA testing found no KGP in any spice packets, including lots not linked to illness, suggestive of adulteration.Conclusion: Method development for aconitine in BC led to an improved response time for testing in ON. BC and ON updated outbreak response protocols and communications.","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11946634/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143731809","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Health and Environmental Impacts of Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins from Freshwater to Seawater.

IF 3.9 3区医学

Toxins Pub Date : 2025-03-07 DOI: 10.3390/toxins17030126

Tamara Villalobos, Benjamín Suárez-Isla, Carlos Garcia

{"title":"Health and Environmental Impacts of Cyanobacteria and Cyanotoxins from Freshwater to Seawater.","authors":"Tamara Villalobos, Benjamín Suárez-Isla, Carlos Garcia","doi":"10.3390/toxins17030126","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17030126","url":null,"abstract":"Cyanobacterial harmful algal blooms (cyanoHABs) are a natural phenomenon produced mainly by the interaction between natural and anthropogenic events. CyanoHABs are characterized by the production of cyanotoxins that can have harmful effects on different species within the food web and even affect human health. Among the most prevalent toxin groups worldwide are microcystins (MCs), anatoxins (ATXs), cylindrospermopsins (CYNs) and nodularins (NODs), which are characterized as toxins with hepatotoxic, neurotoxic, and cytotoxic effects. This review summarizes and analyzes research on the influence of cyanoHABs, the main toxin-producing cyanobacteria and the most prevalent cyanotoxins in freshwater and marine bodies, highlighting their global occurrence, toxicology, and bioaccumulation dynamics in vectors of the food web, and the main cases of acute and chronic intoxications in humans. This review is useful for understanding the dynamics of cyanoHABs' interaction with the ecosystem and their impact on human health, and how the implementation of a surveillance and management framework for cyanobacteria and cyanotoxins could generate vital information for stakeholders to establish health guidelines on the risks and hazards of cyanoHABs for the ecosystem and humans.","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11945519/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143731730","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Abiotic Degradation of the Toxin Simplexin by Soil Collected from a Pimelea-Infested Paddock.

IF 3.9 3区医学

Toxins Pub Date : 2025-03-06 DOI: 10.3390/toxins17030124

Zhi Hung Loh, Natasha L Hungerford, Diane Ouwerkerk, Athol V Klieve, Mary T Fletcher

{"title":"Abiotic Degradation of the Toxin Simplexin by Soil Collected from a Pimelea-Infested Paddock.","authors":"Zhi Hung Loh, Natasha L Hungerford, Diane Ouwerkerk, Athol V Klieve, Mary T Fletcher","doi":"10.3390/toxins17030124","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17030124","url":null,"abstract":"Pimelea poisoning of cattle is caused by the toxin simplexin present in native Pimelea plant species. Surface weathering and burial of Pimelea plant material under soil in Pimelea-infested pastures previously showed simplexin degradation, suggesting soil microbial metabolism and/or abiotic degradation of simplexin in the field. This current study investigated whether soil from a Pimelea-infested paddock was capable of simplexin degradation in the laboratory. The effects of temperature on isolated simplexin levels and simplexin levels in Pimelea plant material treated with field-collected soil, acid-washed sand or bentonite were determined. Pimelea plant material incubated in field-collected soil at 22 °C for seven days did not show any simplexin degradation. Isolated simplexin preadsorbed to field-collected soil, acid-washed sand or bentonite showed simplexin decrease after one hour of incubation at 100 °C with three breakdown products identified by UPLC-MS/MS, indicating that toxin breakdown can be a heat-induced process rather than a microbial-based metabolism. Decreased simplexin levels were observed in Pimelea plant material mixed with acid-washed sand under similar incubation conditions. Overall, the study showed the field-collected soil did not contain soil microorganisms capable of simplexin metabolism within a short period of time. However, the co-exposure to high temperature resulted in significant abiotic simplexin breakdown, without microorganism involvement, with the product structures suggesting that the degradation was a heat promoted acid hydrolysis/elimination process. Overall, this study demonstrated that simplexin breakdown in the field could be a thermal abiotic process with no indication of microbial involvement.","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11946557/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143731546","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Deoxynivalenol Determination Using Innovative Lateral Flow Device Technology.

IF 3.9 3区医学

Toxins Pub Date : 2025-03-05 DOI: 10.3390/toxins17030123

Halberstadt Delphine, Giorni Paola, Barato Erica, Bertuzzi Terenzio

{"title":"Deoxynivalenol Determination Using Innovative Lateral Flow Device Technology.","authors":"Halberstadt Delphine, Giorni Paola, Barato Erica, Bertuzzi Terenzio","doi":"10.3390/toxins17030123","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17030123","url":null,"abstract":"Deoxynivalenol (DON), generally the most widespread mycotoxin in wheat, is regulated by the EU regulation in cereals and cereal-derived products. Its presence can be detected by chromatographic or rapid methods; the latter technique is generally used in control analysis, fulfilling the needs of the stakeholders of the wheat grain chain. Lateral flow strips are often used for the rapid detection of different mycotoxins in several agricultural products; regarding DON determination, different lateral flow immunochromatography strips are currently available, also providing quantitative results. The purpose of this work was to evaluate the accuracy of an innovative lateral flow device coupled to a bench top device, following a digital approach. The proposed method was compared to an LC-MS/MS method, analyzing 50 naturally contaminated wheat samples. The results obtained using the two methods were very similar and, applying a paired t-test, the mean difference between measurements resulted not significantly different (α = 0.003). The correlation between the results showed a slope of the line close to 1 (m = 0.9904) and a regression coefficient (r) of 0.9968.","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11946560/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143731764","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Review: Botulinum Toxin for Treatment of Focal Limb Dystonia.

IF 3.9 3区医学

Toxins Pub Date : 2025-03-04 DOI: 10.3390/toxins17030122

Emma H Kaplan, Michele Vecchio, David M Simpson

引用次数: 0

The Relationship Between Stiff Knee Gait Runner's Dystonia and Musculoskeletal Knee Pathology: A Case Series.

IF 3.9 3区医学

Toxins Pub Date : 2025-03-03 DOI: 10.3390/toxins17030121

Jared A Stowers, Derek S Day, Steven Jow, Sarah Heins, Euan Forrest, Yonathan M Assefa, Paige M Lind, Afreen Mushtaheed, Frances T Sheehan, Katharine E Alter

{"title":"The Relationship Between Stiff Knee Gait Runner's Dystonia and Musculoskeletal Knee Pathology: A Case Series.","authors":"Jared A Stowers, Derek S Day, Steven Jow, Sarah Heins, Euan Forrest, Yonathan M Assefa, Paige M Lind, Afreen Mushtaheed, Frances T Sheehan, Katharine E Alter","doi":"10.3390/toxins17030121","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17030121","url":null,"abstract":"Background: Runner's dystonia (RD), a rare task-specific lower-limb dystonia affecting high-mileage runners, presents as abnormal lower-extremity muscle contractions during running. Treatment of RD is challenging and often confounded by significant diagnostic delays due to overlapping symptomatology with other conditions. This case series examines the relationship between stiff knee gait RD and musculoskeletal (MSK) knee pathology.Methods: Eight RD cases, evaluated at the NIH Movement Disorders Clinic since 2018, were retrospectively reviewed. Patients underwent neurological, biomechanical, and MSK evaluations, including 3D motion analysis, surface electromyography, and knee ultrasound. Therapeutic interventions, including botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) injections, were assessed.Results: Seven patients demonstrated stiff knee gait subtypes, with all having ipsilateral and/or contralateral knee effusions or tendinopathies. Three patients who received MSK interventions (e.g., aspiration, corticosteroid injections) combined with BoNT therapy experienced significant symptom improvement. One patient with isolated foot dystonia displayed different biomechanical patterns without knee pathology.Conclusions: RD patients with stiff knee gait often exhibit knee pathology, most likely due to altered biomechanics and running history. Addressing both issues is essential for optimizing treatment outcomes, reducing pain, and improving function, especially since pain can trigger dystonia. Future research should determine the ideal sequence of interventions for RD patients with MSK issues to develop effective, personalized treatment algorithms.","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11945748/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143731733","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Proteo-Transcriptomic Analysis of the Venom Gland of the Cone Snail Cylinder canonicus Reveals the Origin of the Predatory-Evoked Venom.

IF 3.9 3区医学

Toxins Pub Date : 2025-03-02 DOI: 10.3390/toxins17030119

Zahrmina Ratibou, Anicet E T Ebou, Claudia Bich, Fabrice Saintmont, Gilles Valette, Guillaume Cazals, Dominique K Koua, Nicolas Inguimbert, Sébastien Dutertre

{"title":"Proteo-Transcriptomic Analysis of the Venom Gland of the Cone Snail Cylinder canonicus Reveals the Origin of the Predatory-Evoked Venom.","authors":"Zahrmina Ratibou, Anicet E T Ebou, Claudia Bich, Fabrice Saintmont, Gilles Valette, Guillaume Cazals, Dominique K Koua, Nicolas Inguimbert, Sébastien Dutertre","doi":"10.3390/toxins17030119","DOIUrl":"10.3390/toxins17030119","url":null,"abstract":"Cone snails are carnivorous marine predators that prey on mollusks, worms, or fish. They purposefully inject a highly diversified and peptide-rich venom, which can vary according to the predatory or defensive intended use. Previous studies have shown some correlations between the predation- and defense-evoked venoms and specific sections of the venom gland. In this study, we focus on the characterization of the venom of Cylinder canonicus, a molluscivorous species collected from Mayotte Island. Integrated proteomics and transcriptomics studies allowed for the identification of 108 conotoxin sequences from 24 gene superfamilies, with the most represented sequences belonging to the O1, O2, M, and conkunitzin superfamilies. A comparison of the predatory injected venom and the distal, central, and proximal sections of the venom duct suggests mostly distal origin. Identified conotoxins will contribute to a better understanding of venom-ecology relationships in cone snails and provide a novel resource for potential drug discovery.","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"17 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.9,"publicationDate":"2025-03-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC11946857/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"143731279","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0