Toxins最新文献

{"title":"A Critical Review of Mycotoxin Contamination in Food and Feed in the Democratic Republic of the Congo and Neighboring Countries: Challenges and Future Directions.","authors":"Michel Kawayidiko Kasongo, Arthur Mpanzu Duki, Christophe Tsobo Masiala, Sarah De Saeger, José Diana Di Mavungu","doi":"10.3390/toxins18040182","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040182","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Mycotoxin contamination remains a persistent threat to food safety in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) and neighboring countries, driven by conducive tropical agroecological conditions, inadequate post-harvest practices, and limited regulatory governance. This critical narrative review (2009-2024) synthesizes the occurrence data for major staple foods (maize, peanuts, cassava, sorghum, millet, and beans) and dairy products compiled from Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, MDPI and institutional sources. It examines the co-occurrence patterns, exposure pathways, and analytical and regulatory gaps. Warm, humid lowland environments favor Aspergillus and aflatoxins, whereas cooler, humid highland zones promote Fusarium, fumonisins, and deoxynivalenol. Across commodities, contamination intensifies along food value chains through inadequate drying, non-hermetic storage, insect damage, and prolonged handling, with processed products generally exhibiting the highest levels of mycotoxins. Regulated mycotoxins, including aflatoxins, fumonisins, trichothecenes, ochratoxins, and zearalenone, frequently exceed European Union (EU), East African Community (EAC), and Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) limits in staple foods. Their co-occurrence is widespread, including emerging mycotoxins such as beauvericin and enniatins, particularly in maize- and peanut-based products, raising concerns about potential additive or synergistic effects. Aflatoxin M1 in milk highlights plant-feed-animal-human transfer within a One Health framework. Despite increasing evidence, the available data remain fragmented and heterogeneous; rapid tests dominate, while few studies employ multi-mycotoxin LC-MS/MS methods. Cross-border trade between countries, such as Uganda, Tanzania, Zambia and Angola, facilitates the circulation of contaminated commodities in the absence of harmonized standards and risk-based controls. Priorities include harmonized regional surveillance, biomarker-based co-exposure assessment, cost-effectiveness evaluation of mitigation strategies, and regulatory alignment at borders. Coordinated, multisectoral action is essential to reduce chronic dietary exposure and improve food safety across the region.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"18 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13119991/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147781091","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Occurrence of Ochratoxin A in Edible Pig Tissues (Kidneys, Liver, Muscle and Fat) in Greece Determined by HPLC-FD.","authors":"Mikela Vlachou, Nikolaos Solomakos, Alexander Govaris, Vassilis Athanasiadis, Stavros I Lalas, Andreana Pexara","doi":"10.3390/toxins18040181","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040181","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This study aimed to assess the occurrence and contamination levels of OTA in edible tissues of slaughtered pigs in Greece using high-performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection (HPLC-FD). Kidney, liver, muscle, and fat samples were collected from 1695 healthy slaughtered pigs originating from 113 swine farms across eight geographical regions of Greece and analyzed for OTA. OTA was not detected in muscle or fat samples. In contrast, OTA was detected in 99 of 1695 kidney samples (5.8%), with concentrations ranging from 0.36 to 1.36 μg/kg (mean 0.73 μg/kg; median 0.70 μg/kg). OTA-positive kidney samples were identified in four regions, with the highest prevalence recorded in the regional unit of Karditsa, within the region of Thessaly (75/105 samples; 71.4%), where the maximum OTA concentration in kidneys was observed (1.36 μg/kg). Karditsa was also the only regional unit where OTA was detected in liver samples (40/1695; 2.4%), with concentrations ranging from 0.42 to 1.08 μg/kg (mean 0.61 μg/kg; median 0.53 μg/kg). The lack of detectable OTA levels in muscle and fat indicates minimal consumer exposure through pork; nevertheless, the presence of low-level residues in kidneys and liver emphasizes the necessity for ongoing monitoring using sensitive analytical methods. Overall, OTA contamination in edible tissues was low and unevenly distributed, reflecting localized exposure likely associated with region- or farm-specific feed contamination.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"18 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13119973/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147782028","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Quantifying the Contribution of Nondialytic Factors Affecting Predialysis Serum Phosphate Level When Comparing Hemodiafiltration with Hemodialysis.","authors":"John T Daugirdas","doi":"10.3390/toxins18040179","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040179","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Hyperphosphatemia is a major complication in patients with kidney failure undergoing dialysis and is strongly associated with cardiovascular disease, vascular calcification, and increased mortality. Conventional management relies on dietary phosphate restriction, oral phosphate binders, and dialysis, yet persistent hyperphosphatemia affects a substantial proportion of patients. High-volume hemodiafiltration, combining diffusive and convective clearances, achieves greater phosphate removal than standard hemodialysis, with kinetic modeling predicting ~15-20% higher dialytic phosphate clearance (and ~0.5 mg/dL lower predialysis serum phosphate when nondialytic factors are constant). In this narrative review, we quantify the magnitude of improvement in dialytic clearance of phosphate with hemodiafiltration relative to hemodialysis and evaluate its effects on phosphate control measures. We also analyze phosphate balance in selected hemodiafiltration vs. hemodialysis comparisons and demonstrate why predialysis serum phosphate levels are sometimes only modestly lower or similar when hemodiafiltration is compared with hemodialysis. These findings are largely attributable to nondialytic factors-minor differences in phosphate binder equivalent dose, dietary phosphate ingestion, or residual kidney function-as predicted by phosphate kinetic modeling and supported by clinical trial data. Recognizing these confounders is essential for interpreting hemodiafiltration's phosphate-lowering potential in real-world practice.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"18 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13120225/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147781054","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Lessons Learned from a Military-Biotechnology Partnership to Develop a Broad-Spectrum Small-Molecule Inhibitor for Snakebite Envenoming.","authors":"Kendra L Lawrence, Jeffery L Owen, Lindsey S Garver, Brandi A Ritter, Christopher M Wilson, Ginger R Boatright, F Y Bowling, Timothy F Platts-Mills, Andrea K Renner, Rebecca W Carter","doi":"10.3390/toxins18040180","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040180","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Snakebite envenoming causes an estimated 138,000 deaths annually worldwide, with approximately 75% of fatalities occurring prior to arrival at definitive medical care. Even in regions where antivenom is available in hospitals, the absence of treatment options before a victim can reach definitive care results in delays of many hours before therapy is initiated. Manufacturing complexity, region-specific products, and the risk of anaphylaxis further limit the availability and use of antivenom in many regions. Reducing the persistently high mortality of snakebite envenoming requires both novel scientific approaches and partnerships that extend beyond traditional disciplinary and funding silos. This article describes the collaboration between Ophirex, a Public Benefit Corporation developing the oral secretory phospholipase A2 (sPLA2) inhibitor varespladib, and the United States military, which has identified a capability gap in snakebite treatment for forward-deployed personnel. The partnership was driven by a shared requirement for a shelf-stable, easy-to-administer, snake-species-agnostic therapy suitable for use prior to definitive medical care. A central insight of the program was that military operational requirements and global public health needs converged around the same product characteristics, enabling a strategically aligned development effort. From early proof-of-concept studies through regulatory pathway definition and advanced development, the Military-Ophirex partnership integrated operational requirements, regulatory planning, and iterative risk mitigation to advance manufacturing, nonclinical, and clinical development. This work provides both practical insights into complex drug development and a case study in how structured partnerships can carry innovation through translation in underfunded and operationally challenging conditions.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"18 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13120234/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147781979","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"First Clinical Report on Efficacy of Alternative European Viper Antivenoms in Treatment of <i>Vipera ammodytes</i> Envenomation in Croatia.","authors":"Mihaela Čikeš Šimunković, Adrijana Leonardi, Igor Križaj, Svjetlana Karabuva","doi":"10.3390/toxins18040178","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040178","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>In Croatia, the European Viper Venom Antiserum^®, produced by the Institute of Immunology Zagreb, was the only antiserum used to treat <i>Vipera ammodytes</i> envenomation. When production of the Zagreb antivenom ceased, three other antivenoms, Viperfav^®, BulBio^®, and Viekvin^®, replaced it in clinical practice at the Department of Infectious Diseases, University Hospital Split. This study includes 34 patients envenomed by <i>Vipera ammodytes</i> during the period between 2020 and 2025: 24 (71%) suffered grade 2a envenomation, nine (26%) grade 2b, and one grade 3 (severe envenomation). None were admitted to the Intensive Care Unit. All patients received antivenom: 16 received Viperfav^®, 17 BulBio^®, and one Viekvin^®. All grade 2a patients were treated with a single dose of antivenom. Among grade 2b patients, four received one dose and two received two doses of Viperfav^®, while one received one dose and two received two doses of BulBio^®. The grade 3 patient received two doses of BulBio^®. In all cases, treatment was successful and patients were discharged from hospital after an average of 3.97 days. Patients with pronounced neurotoxic signs did not require treatment with multiple doses of antivenom. All antivenoms proved effective. No adverse reactions or fatalities were observed.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"18 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13119612/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147781988","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes of Asian Coral Snake Bites in Thailand: A Retrospective Cohort Study.","authors":"Phantakan Tansuwannarat, Satariya Trakulsrichai, Juthathip Pathumarak, Achara Tongpoo","doi":"10.3390/toxins18040177","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040177","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Asian coral snakes are distributed throughout Southeast Asia, including Thailand, but clinical data on their envenomation remain limited. Using a 10-year retrospective dataset from the Ramathibodi Poison Center, we investigated the epidemiology, clinical characteristics, management, and outcomes of Asian coral snake envenomation in Thailand. Patient demographics, clinical and laboratory data, treatments, and outcomes were analyzed descriptively. Fifty-two patients were included. <i>Sinomicrurus macclellandi</i> was the most frequently reported species. Most bites occurred during the rainy season and involved the lower extremities. Clinical manifestations were predominantly mild and localized. No cases of systemic neurotoxicity, bulbar weakness, respiratory compromise, or death were observed. Laboratory results were generally within normal limits. Two patients developed anaphylaxis, which resolved with standard emergency treatment, while two experienced severe pain. <i>Calliophis intestinalis lineata</i> was associated with a higher proportion of tachycardia at presentation and longer hospitalization. No patients required mechanical ventilation or antivenom therapy. Supportive care and short-term hospital observation are generally sufficient in confirmed cases. The median duration of hospitalization was 1-3 day. Local manifestations were the predominant clinical findings following Asian coral snake envenomation in Thailand, and systemic neurotoxicity was not observed. These findings differ from reports of <i>Micrurus</i> envenomation, which primarily involve New World coral snakes, whereas the species implicated in Thailand belong to Old World genera.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"18 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13119934/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147781858","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Kidney Function Modulates Gut Microbial Metabolism.","authors":"Mara Lauriola, Sophie Valkenburg, Sander Dejongh, Ward Zadora, Hubert Krukowski, Pieter Evenepoel, Jeroen Raes, Ricard Farré, Griet Glorieux, Björn Meijers","doi":"10.3390/toxins18040176","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040176","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Growing evidence suggests that chronic kidney disease (CKD) profoundly disrupts gut microbiome and its activity. This study explores how CKD affects colon microbial metabolism, focusing on (1) the representativeness of fecal metabolomics, (2) saccharolytic and proteolytic fermentation metabolites, and (3) the gut microbiome's role in the partitioning of tryptophan in its metabolic pathways. Tryptophan's main metabolic pathways include the indolic and the kynurenine pathways, which lead, respectively, to the formation of indoxyl sulfate and kynurenine, both contributing to uremic toxicity. Using a rat model of CKD, we evaluated whether fecal concentrations of microbial compounds, on which most studies are based, reflect the colonic concentrations in contact with the gut mucosa. Thus, we quantified the concentration and content of amino acids, indole, p-cresol, and also short-chain fatty acids, in different colon sections. We demonstrated that CKD promotes increased proteolytic fermentation and an augmented tryptophan partitioning into both the indolic and kynurenine pathways. Depletion of the indolic pathway obtained upon antibiotic treatment leads to a further enhancement of the kynurenine pathway.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"18 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13119667/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147781982","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Integrated Network Toxicology and Metabolomics Reveal the Reproductive Toxicity Mechanisms of Alkaloid-Enriched Fractions in Tripterygium Glycosides Tablets.","authors":"Caiyao Han, Hong Yuan, Sixian Chen, Zhuohua Huang, He Gong, Lin Lv, Xinpeng Zhou, Jiang Ma, Xin He","doi":"10.3390/toxins18040175","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040175","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Tripterygium glycoside tablets (TGT), a representative formulation derived from <i>Tripterygium wilfordii</i> Hook F, have limited clinical application due to adverse reproductive toxicity. In previous studies investigating the effects of TGT on chronic kidney disease (CKD), it was found that both TGT and its alkaloid-enriched fraction (AEF) induced testicular atrophy, suggesting that AEF may be the material basis for the reproductive toxicity of TGT. Therefore, the reproductive toxicity of AEF was investigated in depth. This study established a CKD rat model to investigate the toxic effects of TGT, AEF, and the non-alkaloid-enriched fraction (NAEF) on the reproductive system during CKD treatment. Network toxicology and metabolomics were combined to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of AEF-induced reproductive toxicity. The results showed that both TGT and AEF significantly reduced testicular index and sperm concentration, causing seminiferous tubule atrophy and disrupting the levels of testosterone (T), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH). Furthermore, TGT, AEF, and NAEF all significantly inhibited the proliferation of GC-1 cells. Network toxicology indicated that AEF modulates targets such as SRC, AKT, and HSP90AA1, thereby influencing pathways including the PI3K-AKT signaling pathway and pathways in cancer. Metabolomics obtained 89 differential metabolites of AEF, which were enriched in glycerophospholipid, linoleic acid, and arachidonic acid metabolism, a finding consistent with the constructed \"metabolite-enzyme-reaction-gene\" network. In summary, AEF exerts reproductive toxicity primarily by disrupting hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis homeostasis and perturbing glycerophospholipid, linoleic acid, and arachidonic acid metabolism.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"18 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-04","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13119945/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147781955","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Fusariumic Acids I and J, Two New Phytotoxic Isocassadiene-Type Diterpenoids from Tomato Fusarium Crown and Root Rot Pathogen <i>Fusarium oxysporum</i> f. sp. <i>radicis-lycopersici</i>.","authors":"Prosper Amuzu, Gan Gu, Xuwen Hou, Jiahang Sun, Muhammad Abubakar Jakada, Eromosele Odigie, Daowan Lai, Ligang Zhou","doi":"10.3390/toxins18040173","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040173","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p><i>Fusarium oxysporum</i> f. sp. <i>radicis-lycopersici</i> (<i>Forl</i>) is the etiological agent of tomato Fusarium crown and root rot (FCRR), a devastating soil-borne disease that severely compromises global tomato production. The pathogenicity of <i>Forl</i> has been increasingly linked to its capacity to produce phytotoxic isocassadiene-type diterpenoids. In this study, <i>Forl</i> was cultured in rice medium to obtain <i>Forl</i> cultures, which were used for the separation and identification of secondary metabolites. After removing the known metabolites, two new isocassadiene-type diterpenoid compounds, namely fusariumic acids I (<b>1</b>) and J (<b>2</b>), were isolated from the ethyl acetate extract. Their structures were identified using spectroscopic data analyses and quantum chemical calculations. This is the first report of the fusariumic acid analogs containing a hydroxyl group at position C-1 in the molecule. Fusariumic acids I (<b>1</b>) and J (<b>2</b>) exhibited significantly inhibitory activities on the hypocotyl elongation of tomato (<i>Solanum lycopersicum</i>) and sesame (<i>Sesamum indicum</i>) seedlings, as well as on the coleoptile elongation of rice (<i>Oryza sativa</i> var. <i>japonica</i>) seedlings at concentrations from 10 to 100 µg/mL. The discovery of two new phytotoxic isocassadiene-type diterpenoids expanded the diversity of secondary metabolites of <i>Forl</i>. Meanwhile, it provided critical insights into <i>Forl</i>-tomato interactions and the candidate lead compounds for the development of new herbicides as well.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"18 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13120249/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147781991","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"ZrO₂-Assisted QuEChERS-UHPLC-MS/MS for Simultaneous Determination of Four Aflatoxins in Cereals and Soybean Matrices.","authors":"Shusen Liu, Xiaojuan Zheng, Shuo Zhang, Ning Guo, Haijian Zhang, Jie Shi","doi":"10.3390/toxins18040172","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.3390/toxins18040172","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Highly sensitive methods for trace-level aflatoxin determination are indispensable for cereal food safety and public health protection. This study developed a ZrO₂-assisted QuEChERS-UHPLC-MS/MS method for the simultaneous determination of AFB₁, AFB₂, AFG₁, and AFG₂ in maize, wheat, rice, and soybean. Systematic optimization identified acetonitrile as the optimal extraction solvent and 10 mg ZrO₂ in combination with PSA, C₁₈, and GCB as the optimal cleanup formulation, providing recoveries of 107.33-111.60%. Chromatographic baseline separation was achieved within 8.0 min using a moderate gradient program. The method exhibited excellent linearity (R² > 0.999) with LODs of 0.15-0.25 µg/kg and LOQs of 0.50-0.75 µg/kg. Negligible matrix effects (0.85-1.02) validated the efficacy of ZrO₂-assisted cleanup in eliminating co-extractive interferences in maize. Satisfactory accuracy (recoveries of 86.66-111.04%) and precision (RSDs < 14%) were obtained across all matrices. The method demonstrated consistent performance across diverse cereal and soybean matrices, fulfilling international regulatory requirements for routine aflatoxin monitoring in agricultural commodities.</p>","PeriodicalId":23119,"journal":{"name":"Toxins","volume":"18 4","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.0,"publicationDate":"2026-04-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13120099/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147781893","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}