Case Studies in Thermal Engineering最新文献

{"title":"Digital transformation of conventional shell-tube heat exchanger using digital twinning and machine learning","authors":"Zhi Zhu ,&nbsp;Hao He ,&nbsp;Tosin Famakinwa ,&nbsp;Y.X. Zhang ,&nbsp;Helen Wu ,&nbsp;David Fox ,&nbsp;Richard (Chunhui) Yang","doi":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107932","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107932","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Numerical simulation-based digital twins are emerging as a transformative technology capable of significantly enhancing operational efficiency and minimising costly maintenance and human intervention for smart products and services. However, the inherent limitations of physical monitoring and the uncertainties associated with product or service performance can be effectively addressed through the strategic application of parameterised numerical models combined with advanced machine learning (ML) algorithms. To address the research gap, this research investigates how a novel and systematic digital-twin-based design and analysis approach can facilitate the transformation of a conventional Shell-and-Tube Heat Exchanger (STHE) into a smart machine within the evolving framework of Industry 4.0. The methodology involves devising a data-driven digital twin (DT) for the STHE, utilising coupled Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) and Finite Element Analysis (FEA) simulations to numerically investigate key performance parameters. This process enables the integration of virtual sensors, the fusion of physical measurements, and the deployment of advanced machine learning algorithms to precisely identify critical points for sensor and actuator placement in an Internet of Things (IoT)-based machine condition monitoring (MCM) system. The developed STHE digital twin successfully demonstrates its capability to extract data of key performance parameters, which enables seamless integration with sensors and actuators. This digital twinning further empowers a digital design and prototyping process for visualiszed, real-time IoT based machine condition monitoring. Advanced ML algorithms are employed to identify the locations of the critical points in the STHE, where sensors are installed for IoT-based MCM. The developed STHE DT demonstrates its capability of extracting crucial data based on fundamental principles of mass, energy, and momentum, facilitating seamless integration with sensors. The underpinning concept, comprehensive methodological framework, and practical implementation process of the STHE digital twin presented herein provide a robust foundation. This work represents a significant scientific contribution towards enabling the transformation of conventional mechanical systems into intelligent, data-driven smart products, aligning with the objectives of Industry 4.0.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":9658,"journal":{"name":"Case Studies in Thermal Engineering","volume":"80 ","pages":"Article 107932"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147387371","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Study on the temperature uniformity of lithium batteries based on gradient porous metal foam saturated liquid cooling plate","authors":"Wenhao Li ,&nbsp;Yinxiang Wu ,&nbsp;Min Huang ,&nbsp;Zhenyong Liu","doi":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107923","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107923","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>To improve the thermal management and temperature uniformity of lithium-ion batteries, this study proposes and evaluates a novel liquid cooling plate structure featuring gradient porous metal foam (GPFM). A fully integrated three-dimensional electrochemical-thermal coupled model was developed to accurately capture the battery's internal thermal behavior and assess the cooling plate's performance. The numerical simulations for this model were conducted using COMSOL Multiphysics. The study systematically investigated the influence of key input parameters—specifically, four distinct porosity gradient variations (defined by the gradient index n) and discharge rates (e.g., 2C, 5C, 7C)—on the primary output parameters: the battery's peak temperature and maximum temperature difference (<span><math><mrow><mo>Δ</mo><msub><mi>T</mi><mi>max</mi></msub></mrow></math></span>). The results indicate that the designed GPFM cooling plate effectively lowers the peak temperature while markedly improving thermal uniformity. The enhancement was most evident when the gradient variation index n = 2. The impact of the gradient design varied with the discharge rate. The maximum temperature reduction peaked at 13.5% under a 7C discharge rate. Conversely, the temperature difference achieved its highest percentage reduction of 58.1% at a 2C discharge rate. This study demonstrates that optimizing the porosity gradient design is an effective approach to enhancing temperature uniformity in lithium-ion batteries, particularly offering significant benefits under high-discharge-rate conditions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":9658,"journal":{"name":"Case Studies in Thermal Engineering","volume":"80 ","pages":"Article 107923"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147387427","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Modeling and thermal characteristic analysis of feed system considering multi-physical field coupling","authors":"Yabin Jing ,&nbsp;Xialun Yun ,&nbsp;Gedong Jiang ,&nbsp;Hanbo Yang ,&nbsp;Hu Shi ,&nbsp;Haitao Wang ,&nbsp;Xuesong Mei","doi":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107925","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107925","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The feed system (FS), a critical component in machine tools, significantly impacts machining accuracy through its thermal characteristics. Accurate modeling of its contact mechanism and coupled physical fields is essential for determining precise boundary conditions (BCs), which are fundamental to thermal characteristic modeling. To address this, this study proposes a fluid-solid-thermal coupling strategy to calculate the BCs integrating film-structure-temperature, convection-structure-temperature, and thermo-mechanical coupling. This strategy is built on a contact mechanism model (RCCD-CF-GM-ARCT) incorporating raceway curvature center displacement, centrifugal force, gyroscopic moment effects, and adaptive raceway control theory. Subsequently, the thermal characteristic model (TC-MPFC-HM) is developed using the finite element method, based on the multi-physical field coupling strategy and the moving heat of the FS. Additionally, a closed-loop iteration algorithm is proposed to dynamically update BCs, ensuring accuracy and responsiveness. The results show significant improvements over traditional models, reducing RMSE by 77.54%, 82.81%, and 85.17%, and MAE by 78.4%, 82.06%, and 86.41% under various working conditions. These results validate that the model has enhanced precision and robustness, offering a comprehensive approach for thermal error modeling of FS.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":9658,"journal":{"name":"Case Studies in Thermal Engineering","volume":"80 ","pages":"Article 107925"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147387429","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A comprehensive performance evaluation of a fuel-cell hybrid electric heavy-duty truck through energy flow experiment under user-defined driving test cycles","authors":"Renhua Feng ,&nbsp;Zhanye Hua ,&nbsp;Zhichao Zhao ,&nbsp;Faguang Li ,&nbsp;Xing Shu ,&nbsp;Licheng Luo ,&nbsp;Huikai Zhai","doi":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107819","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107819","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study experimentally investigates the energy flow characteristics of a fuel cell (FC) hybrid electric heavy-duty truck under user-defined driving cycles. The analysis comprehensively examines three critical aspects including energy consumption distribution patterns, efficiency metrics of key powertrain components, and thermal management system performance. The results show that the FC stack achieves 47.98% conversion efficiency but suffers 49.6% thermal losses through coolant systems with power fluctuations, resulting in only 38.99% of initial energy reaching the wheels after accounting for losses in power electronics, transmission and auxiliary systems. The power battery effectively balances loads but achieves only 26.1% energy recovery during deceleration and motor efficiency drops below 85% during medium-speed and low-torque operation in intermediate gears, indicating optimization potential for both energy recovery and shift strategies. Thermal management challenges emerge throughout the system with FC coolant temperature variations correlating with current changes while maintaining 10 °C differentials during load fluctuations. Under the current cooling configuration, the maximum temperature of the battery cell rose to 35 °C. Meanwhile, the motor temperature increased from 27 °C to 50 °C and then stabilized at 45-50 °C. Although the system achieved basic thermal management, there are limitations in handling the heat load at the battery end, indicating the need to further improve the cooling design by increasing cooling capacity or optimizing algorithms. Additionally, the 2-4 °C cabin temperature variations and compressor instability highlight heating, ventilation and air conditioning system needs for outlet redesign or control strategies enhancements. This study constructed a brand-new energy flow analysis framework for FCHE, which not only quantifies energy consumption distribution and powertrain component efficiency, but also conducts in-depth analysis of the thermal management system from multiple dimensions such as temperature response, heat loss mechanism, and subsystem coordination. This research also provides a reference for the subsequent improvement of the performance and engineering application of FC hybrid heavy-duty trucks.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":9658,"journal":{"name":"Case Studies in Thermal Engineering","volume":"80 ","pages":"Article 107819"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146152788","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Aerodynamic loading of lightweight green roof systems on industrial buildings: A case-based CFD study of an existing industrial hall","authors":"Pavel Kučírek ,&nbsp;Ondřej Šikula ,&nbsp;Michal Krajčík ,&nbsp;Martin Mohapl ,&nbsp;Müslüm Arıcı","doi":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107842","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107842","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Large low-rise industrial halls offer extensive roof areas for adding vegetated roof assemblies (VRAs) as part of reconstruction. However, existing structures often require lightweight VRAs to avoid overloading. To assess the wind resistance of such lightweight systems, atmospheric boundary layer simulations were conducted in OpenFOAM using Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes approach for a cuboid industrial hall in a low-density built environment, representative of many industrial facilities worldwide. Additional roof geometries and adjoining-building cases were analysed to cover configurations not addressed in prior studies. Compared with a simple cuboid, a combined cuboid-bevel geometry experienced notably higher roof underpressure. The presence of an adjoining building further intensified corner-zone suction, increasing peak local suction from −608 Pa to −830 Pa (37%). For an extreme air velocity of 43.1 m/s recorded at the Brno (Czech Republic) meteorological station, the computed pressures were compared with the European standard for wind actions on structures. The peak suction reached approximately −4 kPa at the roof corner for a 45° wind direction, about twice the allowable limit for components with effective area ≤1 m², indicating that perpendicular-wind (0°) analyses may underestimate the risk for modular systems. The results have implications for the long-term green-roof performance, because wind-induced uplift or substrate displacement can alter VRA thermal behaviour; maintaining aerodynamic stability is therefore essential to sustain the intended thermal performance. The findings highlight potential failure mechanisms, particularly in unanchored lightweight VRAs, and support more resilient green-roof design and standards for industrial buildings.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":9658,"journal":{"name":"Case Studies in Thermal Engineering","volume":"80 ","pages":"Article 107842"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146777425","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Experimental and optimization study of photovoltaic panel thermal management using serrated fins and biomass-derived hybrid conductive PCM","authors":"Xilong Bai ,&nbsp;Junpeng Xiao ,&nbsp;Linjun Li","doi":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107845","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107845","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study presents a novel passive cooling system for photovoltaic (PV) panels, integrating serrated fins with shape-stabilized phase change materials (SS-PCMs) enhanced by a biomass-derived hybrid filler composed of walnut shell charcoal and graphene nanoplatelets. The hybrid filler improves thermal conductivity and prevents PCM leakage, while the serrated fins enhance heat transfer. Experiments under varying solar irradiance (300–1000 W/m²) assessed the effects of irradiance, filler weight fraction (0–10 wt%), and fin number (0–8) on PV surface temperature and electrical efficiency. Results show that the combination of fins and hybrid fillers significantly reduces PV temperature and improves heat dissipation uniformity. The optimal configuration—8 fins with 10 wt% filler—achieved a maximum temperature reduction of 24.82 °C compared to an uncooled panel, increasing electrical efficiency by 1.45% (absolute). Response Surface Methodology (RSM) revealed strong correlations between design parameters and performance, identifying solar irradiance as the most influential factor. Multi-objective optimization determined the best operating condition at 800 W/m² irradiance, yielding a PV temperature of 43.52 °C, 14.67% efficiency, and a desirability of 0.911. These findings demonstrate that combining serrated fins with biomass-enhanced SS-PCMs provides a synergistic passive cooling effect, delaying thermal saturation and improving PV system performance and durability.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":9658,"journal":{"name":"Case Studies in Thermal Engineering","volume":"80 ","pages":"Article 107845"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146777427","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A new analytical method for thermal performance prediction of multi-pass serpentine tube heat exchangers","authors":"Zhiwei Liu ,&nbsp;Guoqiang Xu ,&nbsp;Jie Wen ,&nbsp;Bensi Dong ,&nbsp;Laihe Zhuang","doi":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107853","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107853","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Accurate and computationally efficient prediction of thermal performance in serpentine tube heat exchangers (STHEs) is paramount for advanced aeroengine thermal management systems. Existing methods, however, often oversimplify complex flow phenomena, rendering them inadequate for identifying intricate local cross-flow interactions and their consequences, which directly impact system reliability and safety. To address this critical research gap, this paper introduces a novel analytical model for multi-pass STHEs that achieves both high accuracy and superior computational efficiency. Our model employs a unit-based approach, discretizing the STHE into repeatable single-tube row modules. By sequentially solving these modules, we achieve an accurate resolution of detailed, two-dimensional temperature distributions across the entire heat exchanger. A significant contribution of this work is the model's capability to predict and mechanistically explain the observed local inverse heat transfer phenomenon in parallel-flow configurations. This critical behavior, largely overlooked by conventional models, directly influences overall heat transfer performance. Rigorous numerical validation confirms the model's accuracy, with average deviations below 1% for the total heat transfer rate and 3.49% for the temperature distribution. Furthermore, comparative analyses reveal that our proposed analytical model significantly outperforms traditional methods in predictive accuracy. The improvement is larger than 5% when <em>μ</em> &gt; 0.30 and <em>NTU</em>₂ &gt; 2.83 for parallel-flow STHEs, and <em>μ</em> &lt; 0.43 and <em>NTU</em>₂ &gt; 0.56 counter-flow STHEs. These findings collectively demonstrate that the developed framework not only provides new physical insights into the heat transfer mechanisms governing multi-pass STHEs but also serves as an efficient computational tool for performance optimization of aerospace thermal management systems where stringent reliability constraints exist.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":9658,"journal":{"name":"Case Studies in Thermal Engineering","volume":"80 ","pages":"Article 107853"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147278946","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Thermo-mechanical behavior of clays: Divergent responses of kaolinite and montmorillonite in temperature-controlled shear tests","authors":"Mostafa Zamanian ,&nbsp;Meghdad Payan ,&nbsp;Navid Afsharnia","doi":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107857","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107857","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study examines the thermo-mechanical behavior of cohesive soils, focusing on the influence of temperature and clay mineralogy on shear strength and stiffness. Temperature-controlled direct shear tests were conducted on montmorillonite-rich bentonite and kaolinite under normal stresses of 100–300 kPa and temperatures ranging from 5 °C to 80 °C. Specimens were compacted at optimum moisture content to maximum dry density, then saturated and consolidated prior to testing. Kaolinite exhibited thermal stability, with negligible changes in strength and stiffness across the temperature range. This behavior is attributed to its low surface activity, limited interlayer water, and stable 1:1 lattice structure, which minimize thermo-hydro-mechanical interactions. Montmorillonite, in contrast, displayed a biphasic thermal response: strength and stiffness increased with temperature up to ∼60 °C, due to reduced pore water viscosity and partial dehydration enhancing interparticle bonding. Beyond this threshold, a decline in mechanical properties was observed, likely caused by the disruption of diffuse double layers and microstructural weakening. These contrasting responses underscore the critical role of mineralogy in governing soil behavior under thermal loads. The findings have direct implications for the design and safety of energy geostructures, nuclear waste containment systems, and other geotechnical applications exposed to elevated temperatures.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":9658,"journal":{"name":"Case Studies in Thermal Engineering","volume":"80 ","pages":"Article 107857"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147278937","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Numerical simulation of autoignition characteristics of methane/ n-dodecane dual fuel","authors":"Xu Zhou,&nbsp;Gen Zhu,&nbsp;Fugang Li,&nbsp;Weizhi Wu,&nbsp;Yijun Wang,&nbsp;Shangming Li,&nbsp;Yupeng Hu","doi":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107884","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107884","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Numerical simulations were carried out to investigate the autoignition characteristics of methane/n-dodecane dual fuel under the conditions of <em>P</em> = 6 atm and <em>T</em> = 1100 K. The skeletal mechanism containing 54 species and 269 steps reaction was employed, and the performances of mechanism to cover zero-dimensional homogeneous ignition and laminar flame propagation problems in lean methane-air mixtures were demonstrated. The research results indicate that the combustion processes were divided into the inert mixing phase, the low-temperature chemical reaction phase, and the high-temperature chemical reaction phase. And there are significant competitive relationships between the two fuels during the ignition process, and the autoignition characteristics of n-dodecane in the methane/air mixture are affected by the equivalent ratio of methane. The two-stage ignition characteristics of dual fuel were discovered by direct numerical simulation. The first-stage ignitions are originated from the low-temperature chemical reaction in the richer mixtures. And the second-stage ignitions are caused by the single-stage high-temperature reaction, occurring near the equivalent mixture fraction. Increasing methane equivalent ratio will inhibit the ignition of two stages. It was determined that the elementary reaction CH₄+OH&lt;=&gt;CH₃+H₂O is enhanced due to the addition of methane through sensitivity analysis, resulting in increasing ignition delay times.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":9658,"journal":{"name":"Case Studies in Thermal Engineering","volume":"80 ","pages":"Article 107884"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147330267","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Research on the design and parameter optimization of hybrid thermal management system combing phase change material with liquid-cooling","authors":"Zhao Han ,&nbsp;Yuwen Zhao ,&nbsp;Shifeng Hu ,&nbsp;Zhihua Zhou ,&nbsp;Ruiming Nie ,&nbsp;Chendong Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107903","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.csite.2026.107903","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Battery energy storage systems (BESS) are crucial to manage the variability of renewable energy. However, heat generated during battery charging and discharging can cause elevated temperatures, posing significant safety risks. Fortunately, Liquid-Cooling phase change material (PCM) hybrid thermal management system (TMS) can effectively reduce battery temperature and mitigate safety risks caused by heat generation. But the structure of the Liquid-Cooling system and the thermophysical properties of PCM affect the heat transfer of the hybrid TMS. In this study, a novel flexible composite PCM (ZES@PW) was developed, utilizing styrene-butadiene block copolymer (SEBS) as the structural scaffold, paraffin wax (PW) as the latent-storage medium, and a hybrid filler of ZIF-derived carbon/expanded graphite to synergistically boost thermal conductivity. ZES@PW demonstrates high heat storage efficiency (73.59%–78.98%), significantly enhanced thermal conductivity (107.55%–232.83%), excellent flexibility, and low contact thermal resistance. An experimental platform and model were established to optimize the temperature control performance of the liquid-cooled ZES@PW hybrid TMS in Li-ion soft packs. Results showed that for 1C/2C discharging conditions, the surface maximum temperature for battery with a decrease of 9.71K/23.63K. And three U-shaped bends structure was identified as the optimal design, three number of batteries in series was the optimal configuration, and the max liquid flow rate was 0.06/0.12 m/s for 1C/2C operating conditions. For ZES@PW, phase change temperature and enthalpy significantly affect the liquid phase rate and heat exchange. Thermal conductivity impacts the maximum temperature difference between the battery and ZES@PW. These findings can effectively guide the design of PCM-hybrid TMS.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":9658,"journal":{"name":"Case Studies in Thermal Engineering","volume":"80 ","pages":"Article 107903"},"PeriodicalIF":6.4,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147360597","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}