Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences最新文献

{"title":"Retrieval of Boundary Layer Precipitable Water Over the Korean Peninsula Using GK2A AMI Split-window Radiances","authors":"Jieun Yu,&nbsp;Yoonjin Lee,&nbsp;InChul Shin,&nbsp;Seonkyeon Seong,&nbsp;Yoon-Jae Kim,&nbsp;Eun-Ha Sohn","doi":"10.1007/s13143-026-00445-8","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13143-026-00445-8","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Low-level water vapor is a key factor in initiating and intensifying convective activity during summer over the Korean Peninsula. However, monitoring and tracking low-level water vapor remains challenging due to sparse observations over the ocean and the coarse spatial and temporal resolutions of existing observational datasets. This study aims to retrieve boundary layer precipitable water (BPW) using three infrared window channels (10.5, 11.2, and 12.3 μm) from GK2A satellite that are known to be sensitive to boundary layer precipitable water. Dry and wet absorption coefficients for each channel are first derived using simulated radiances from RTTOV using ERA5 atmospheric profiles and corresponding total precipitable water (TPW) values. These coefficients are then used to retrieve BPW values. Validation results indicate that the retrieved BPW shows good correlation with ERA5 TPW over both land and ocean, with the Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.871 and 0.872, respectively. Several case studies further demonstrate the capability of the retrieval in capturing increases in BPW prior to convective initiation, highlighting its potential value for operational forecasting.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8556,"journal":{"name":"Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences","volume":"62 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-07-30","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13143-026-00445-8.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148614878","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Process-Based Attribution of Regional PM2.5 Variability Over South Korea Using CMAQ–IPR Diagnostics","authors":"Hye-Ryun Oh,&nbsp;Seong-il Lee,&nbsp;Hyo-Jong Song","doi":"10.1007/s13143-026-00444-9","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13143-026-00444-9","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Understanding the regional variability of particulate matter with a diameter of ≤ 2.5 μm (PM_2.5) is crucial for effective air quality management. Here, we investigate the spatiotemporal variability and the physical and chemical processes controlling PM_2.5 concentrations across six subregions of the Seoul Metropolitan Area (SMA) and the Chungcheong region during December 2020–March 2021 using the Community Multiscale Air Quality (CMAQ) model with Integrated Process Rate (IPR) diagnostics to quantify the contributions of vertical (VERT) and horizontal transport (HORI), emissions (EMIS), secondary aerosol formation (AERO), dry deposition (DDEP), cloud processes (CLDS), and chemical transformations (CHEM). Regional mean PM_2.5 levels were similar (26.24–29.64 µg m^− 3) across the study area, but pronounced spatial heterogeneity was observed. IPR analysis showed that VERT related to atmospheric stability is the dominant contributor throughout the entire study period across all regions, accounting for 36% in Chungnam and up to 43% in Seoul and Chungbuk. During high-PM_2.5 days (daily mean PM_2.5 concentration &gt; 35 µg m^− 3), however, the relative contribution of EMIS decreases, whereas that of HORI increases, reaching up to 26% in Incheon and 19% in Gyeonggi-North, respectively, indicating regional differences. These results mean that the dominant processes governing PM_2.5 variability differ significantly by region. These results highlight the need for region-specific air quality management strategies that consider both topographical constraints and chemical sensitivity.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8556,"journal":{"name":"Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences","volume":"62 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-07-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148614702","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Aircraft-based Cloud Seeding Experiments Over the Yongpyong Region During the ICE-POP 2018","authors":"A-Reum Ko,&nbsp;Ki-Ho Chang,&nbsp;Sang-hee Chae,&nbsp;Yonghun Ro,&nbsp;Seongkyu Seo,&nbsp;Seungbum Kim","doi":"10.1007/s13143-026-00447-6","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13143-026-00447-6","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Quantifying artificial snowfall effects and accurately identifying microphysical changes remains a significant challenge due to background natural variability. This study analyzed two aircraft-based glaciogenic cloud seeding experiments conducted during the ICE-POP 2018 campaign on January 30 and March 21, 2018. To evaluate seeding effects, an integrated approach was utilized by linking numerical simulations, in situ airborne observations, and ground-based measurements. For the January 30 case, tracing the microphysical evolution along the Lagrangian advection path revealed a transition from ice initialization to dendritic growth, which was spatially aligned with the wind-driven transport of the seeded air mass. For the March 21 case, a distinct increase in ice particle concentrations and surface snowfall was recorded within the predicted seeding effect duration. The synchronization between the model-simulated seeding plume and the observed microphysical transitions provides a consistent physical basis for attributing these localized changes to the seeding experiment. By demonstrating a linked causal chain from plume dispersion to surface precipitation, this study underscores the capability of integrated observation–model frameworks to isolate seeding signals within complex orographic environments.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8556,"journal":{"name":"Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences","volume":"62 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-07-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148614701","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Assessment of the Microphysics and Cumulus Parameterization Schemes in WRF for Simulating the Heavy Rainfall Event on 8 August 2022 in South Korea","authors":"Minseo Yu,&nbsp;Ji Won Yoon,&nbsp;Seon Ki Park","doi":"10.1007/s13143-026-00448-5","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13143-026-00448-5","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>This study evaluated the performance of the Weather Forecasting and Research (WRF) model in simulating a heavy rainfall event (HRE) in the metropolitan Seoul area on 8 August 2022. Sensitivity experiments were conducted using 10 microphysics (MP) schemes and 9 cumulus parameterization (CP) schemes; a total of 90 combinations were assessed using the radar observation of 15-hr accumulated precipitation. The HRE was triggered by the interaction of two contrasting airflows over the central Korean Peninsula―a warm, moist southwesterly and a cold, dry northwesterly―along with the enhanced instability. Among the tested configurations, KSAS_WDM7 showed the best performance, ranking first in both the correlation coefficient and equitable threat score. The results indicate that the model generally performs better in forecasting the precipitation rate (amplitude) rather than spatial distribution of precipitation (phase). Although CP schemes show a stronger influence on model performance than MP schemes, the results also suggest that the performance differences depend on both scheme-specific characteristics and case-dependent factors. Further investigation is needed to better understand the interaction effects between MP and CP schemes.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8556,"journal":{"name":"Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences","volume":"62 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-07-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13143-026-00448-5.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148465999","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Precipitation and Atmospheric Moisture Anomalies over the Asia-Pacific associated with El Niño-Southern Oscillation and Pacific-Indian Dipole in the Present and Future","authors":"Ian G. Watterson","doi":"10.1007/s13143-026-00446-7","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13143-026-00446-7","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>To better understand the variability of precipitation over the Asia-Pacific region, atmospheric moisture anomalies associated with two Indo-Pacific indices of variability, NINO3.4 and Pacific-Indian Dipole, are analysed for the ERA5 reanalysis and for simulations by 35 CMIP6 climate models, including ten that provide vertically integrated moisture flux data. The anomaly patterns associated with the indices are determined using linear regression of detrended seasonal means for the period 1980–2019. The simulated patterns of 12 variables are validated with those from ERA5 over the Indo-Pacific domain. This study shows that the skill for precipitation is closely related to those in the moisture flux and its convergence across the ten models. The overall skill for the 35-model means of temperature, pressure, and precipitation exceeds that of any individual model. The indices and associated patterns for the period 2040–2079 under the very high emissions scenario (SSP5-8.5) are scaled to provide a projection of change for a global warming of 2 °C. The ensemble-mean anomaly patterns are mostly similar to those for 1980–2019 over the domain but with enhanced flux and integrated water, indicating a thermodynamic change. Changes in moisture convergence largely account for those in precipitation. The inter-model spread of change in rainfall can be large for both variability and climatological means. For some regions, the changes for precipitation are well correlated across the 35 models with the changes in one or both indices. In particular, changes in all-Australia mean rainfall are linked to those in the Pacific-Indian Dipole index.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8556,"journal":{"name":"Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences","volume":"62 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-07-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s13143-026-00446-7.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148465065","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Improving Representations of Snow Cover and Surface Energy Balance for Mountainous Meteorological Simulations over the Korean Peninsula","authors":"Wonseok Ko,&nbsp;Taehee Kim,&nbsp;Heon-Seok Do,&nbsp;Jimin Kim,&nbsp;Seung-Jae Lee,&nbsp;Inhye Kim,&nbsp;Chan-Yeong Song,&nbsp;Keunchang Jang,&nbsp;Jea-Chul Kim,&nbsp;Kyung-Hwan Kwak","doi":"10.1007/s13143-026-00442-x","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13143-026-00442-x","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Recently, global warming has increased the occurrence of intense precipitation and strong winds, leading to frequent mountain disasters such as wildfires and landslides. Land–atmosphere energy exchange in mountainous regions strongly influences local meteorological conditions. In winter, snow cover, through its high albedo and insulating effects, exerts a strong feedback on the surface energy balance; however, the accuracy of current atmospheric models in simulating these processes is limited owing to uncertainties in key snow-related variables, particularly snow depth, snow cover fraction, and snow water equivalent. The objective of this study was to improve the snow-related representation in land surface parameterization schemes suitable for simulating surface energy balance processes in mountainous areas and to propose an optimal method for realistic model initialization. For this, the Weather Research and Forecasting model (version 4.3) was used for experiments adopting three surface exchange heat coefficient parameterization schemes (N11, Z98, and C97). Flux tower observations from Hongcheon, Samcheok, and Pyeongchang, Gangwon province, Republic of Korea, were used for model validation. Additionally, sensitivity experiments of the melt factor for snow depletion curve (MFSNO) and the improvement of snow-related initial input data based on a snow-cover correction algorithm were performed over the target domain. Model evaluation showed that the Z98 scheme showed the best performance for simulating surface energy balance processes, while all three schemes tended to overestimate net radiation and sensible heat flux during snow-covered periods because of underestimated snow cover. In MFSNO sensitivity experiments based on Z98, MFSNO2.0 most realistically reproduced changes in albedo and snow cover. In addition, the proposed model initialization algorithm and MFSNO adjustment effectively enhanced the model’s performance in representing snow cover and albedo in mountainous areas.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8556,"journal":{"name":"Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences","volume":"62 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148380735","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"GEV-based Extreme Precipitation in Summer Over the Korean Peninsula for 1973–2024","authors":"Jin-Woo Ryu,&nbsp;Kyung-Ja Ha,&nbsp;Minwoo Kim","doi":"10.1007/s13143-026-00437-8","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13143-026-00437-8","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Understanding long-term trends in summer extreme precipitation is crucial for disaster risk management and climate adaptation. Yet, differences between hourly and daily extremes, as well as discrepancies between station-based observations and reanalysis data, are not fully explored. Here, we analyze summer precipitation (June–August) over the Korean Peninsula during 1973–2024 using ASOS observations and ERA5 reanalysis. Extreme precipitation is characterized by applying the generalized extreme value (GEV) distribution for daily (RX1DAY) and hourly (RX1H) maxima, and change point detection is applied to evaluate temporal nonstationarity in extreme precipitation characteristics. While mean JJA precipitation and RX1DAY show modest increases over 52 years, with the former rising by about 10.3% (0.79 mm/day) and the latter by approximately 11.4% (13.90 mm), RX1H exhibits a statistically significant increase of 19.6% relative to its climatological mean (<i>p</i> &lt; 0.01), indicating a stronger intensification at shorter timescales. Additional analysis shows that this intensification is not strongly linked to station elevation, suggesting a limited role of local topography in the temporal evolution of short-duration extremes. ERA5 substantially underestimates extremes, by up to about 2.5 times for RX1DAY and about 4.9 times for RX1H, with biases becoming more pronounced at shorter temporal scales. Despite these magnitude discrepancies, ERA5 broadly reproduces the large-scale spatial patterns of extreme precipitation, indicating its usefulness for regional-scale diagnosis while highlighting limitations in quantifying localized extremes. Spatial patterns reveal enhanced daily return values along the Taebaek Mountains, southern coasts, and Jeju Island, whereas hourly return values exhibit more complex and localized inland distributions. Return-period analysis indicates that several stations have already experienced events exceeding the 200-year return period for both RX1DAY and RX1H. Change point detection identifies 1994 as a key transition year for RX1H, after which the both intensity and frequency of short-duration extreme precipitations increased markedly. This regime shift is consistent with previously reported decadal-scale changes in the East Asian summer monsoon circulation, suggesting that large-scale dynamical changes, together with thermodynamic amplification, have contributed to the intensification of hourly extremes. Overall, summer extreme rainfall in South Korea has intensified over the past five decades, becoming increasingly concentrated at shorter timescales. These results underscore the importance of long-term station observations for robust estimation of short-duration extremes, while emphasizing the escalating risks under climate change and the need for improved representation of localized extreme precipitation in reanalysis products and climate models.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8556,"journal":{"name":"Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences","volume":"62 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148236876","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Comparative Analysis of AIFS and IFS Forecasts for Two Heavy Rainfall Events","authors":"Hongfang Zhang,&nbsp;Liujie Pan,&nbsp;Peirong Li,&nbsp;Li Zhang","doi":"10.1007/s13143-026-00443-w","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13143-026-00443-w","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The forecasting performance and reasons for differences of ECMWF’s Artificial Intelligence Forecasting System (AIFS) and Integrated Forecasting System (IFS) for two heavy rainfall events was analysised. Spatial verification indicates that the IFS precipitation field can be used to identify smaller heavy rainfall objects, with better consistency in precipitation intensity and local distribution characteristics compared to observations, while AIFS performs better in forecasting the spatial location and area of heavy rainfall objects. AIFS exhibits an excessive frequency of precipitation above light rain, resulting in lower Threat Score (TS) and Equitable Threat Scores (ETS) for ≥ 0.1 mm precipitation, while the amplitude of precipitation forecasts is less than that of IFS, which better forecasts the extremity of precipitation. AIFS excels in forecasting the circulation patterns and the position of mesoscale systems generating precipitation for both events compared to IFS, but the convergence intensity of airflow in the mid-to-low layers is lower than IFS. AIFS shows a positive anomaly of Integrated Water Vapor Transport (IVT) on land due to localized mesoscale systems relative to ERA5, whereas IFS exhibits a consistent positive anomaly of IVT from the ocean to the heavy rainfall area, indicating stronger moisture transport by IFS. The standard deviation of IFS precipitable water (PW) is stronger than ERA5, with vertical velocity profiles matching ERA5 very well, while AIFS has a weaker PW standard deviation and fails to depict the profile characteristics of vertical velocity, which may be an important reason for the weaker intensity forecast of heavy rainfall by AIFS.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8556,"journal":{"name":"Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences","volume":"62 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148236472","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Clustering of Convective Heavy Rainfall Types on the Korean Peninsula and Analysis of Atmospheric Environment and Rainfall Characteristics by Cluster","authors":"Ki-Ok Hong,&nbsp;Myoung-Seok Suh,&nbsp;Jong-Khun Kim","doi":"10.1007/s13143-026-00441-y","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13143-026-00441-y","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>This study analyzes the relationship between atmospheric environment and rainfall characteristics of convective heavy rainfall (Con_HR) events with intensities ≥ 30 mm hr⁻¹ over the Korean Peninsula during May–September from 2011 to 2024. Con_HR cases were identified using AWS/ASOS surface observations, and atmospheric conditions and rainfall characteristics were analyzed using ERA5 and Korea Meteorological Administration gridded precipitation reanalysis data. The spatio-temporal scale of Con_HR cases varies widely, from a few kilometers to several hundred kilometers and from 1 to 2 h to several tens of hours. For each Con_HR case, nine atmospheric variables representing moisture content, thermodynamic instability, and wind shear were calculated, and cluster analysis was performed using Hierarchical Clustering, K-means, and Gaussian Mixture Model. Based on cases consistently classified across these methods, Con_HR environments were categorized into four distinct clusters. The results show that Cluster 0 occurs in environments with low thermodynamic instability but relatively strong vertical wind shear and is associated with rainfall persisting over a wide spatial extent. In contrast, Cluster 1 develops under conditions characterized by high thermodynamic instability indices, producing rainfall concentrated within localized areas and short durations. Cluster 2 is characterized by generally low instability across most indices with large inter-case variability, whereas Cluster 3, accounting for more than half of the cases, develops in environments where moisture availability, instability, and wind shear are simultaneously satisfied, resulting in relatively higher rainfall intensity and larger affected areas. Differences among Con_HR clusters are more pronounced in rainfall duration and spatial extent than in local peak intensity.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8556,"journal":{"name":"Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences","volume":"62 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148172282","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Climatological Characteristics of Low-Level Jets over the Korean Peninsula Based on ERA5 Data","authors":"Kum-Lan Kim,&nbsp;Myoung-Seok Suh,&nbsp;Sang-Sam Lee","doi":"10.1007/s13143-026-00440-z","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s13143-026-00440-z","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>ERA5 data for 30 years (1994–2023) were used to analyze the spatiotemporal climate characteristics of low-level jets (LLJs) over the Korean Peninsula. To assess the suitability of this data, ERA5 LLJ characteristics were compared with long-term radiosonde observations. Because ERA5 data represent grid-averaged atmospheric conditions, an additional LLJ-0 category [wind speed (<i>V</i>_<i>max</i>) &gt; 8 m/s, wind speed decrease above LLJ altitude (△V) &gt; 4 m/s] was defined as adjusted criteria. A comparison between LLJ-1 and LLJ-0 from the radiosonde observation and ERA5 data, respectively, confirmed similar monthly variations in frequency and altitude distributions. LLJ frequency varied regionally and seasonally. The highest frequency (40%) was observed in spring (April–May) in the West sea, whereas, in summer, the high-frequency region shifted to the South Sea. The LLJ altitude showed a clear contrast between land and sea. Over the sea, LLJs occurred extensively at low altitudes (0.8–1.2 km), while, over land, LLJ altitude gradually increased from the west coast eastward, with the highest altitudes (&gt; 1.4 km) found over the Taebaek Mountains. The LLJ wind direction showed two to three dominant modes in each region. Notably, year-round easterly LLJs occurred across inland regions. The ERA5 data did not adequately capture the wintertime northerly LLJ on the leeward side of Hallasan, Jeju Island. Although the 30-year dataset was insufficient to assess the climatic influences on LLJ frequency, it indicated an increase in LLJ frequencies over most regions except the east coast.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":8556,"journal":{"name":"Asia-Pacific Journal of Atmospheric Sciences","volume":"62 3","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-06-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148172594","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}