3D printing in medicine最新文献

{"title":"A novel 3D-printed noninvasive immobilizer for head stability during surgery of the orbit and skull base.","authors":"Joseph P Miller, Teresa H Chen, Jeremiah P Tao","doi":"10.1186/s41205-026-00322-0","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s41205-026-00322-0","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>BACKGROUND: This study investigates a 3D printed, noninvasive headrest that was designed for use in orbital and skull base surgeries and compares the stability of this innovative headrest to conventional head immobilization devices using accelerometer-based measurements. METHODS: A 3D model of a headrest was developed using two plastic materials: polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG) and thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU). Stability, in g-force, was measured for these headrests, Gel Head Donut Adult Blue Diamond®, and a no headrest condition. A non-embalmed cadaver’s head was placed in each headrest condition and subjected to controlled oscillations using Bellco Glass’ Orbital Shaker. Acceleration data were recorded over a 3-second interval. RESULTS: The average acceleration, measured in g-force (g), over 3 s for each headrest configuration was: (1) no headrest: 0.068116 g ± 0.058498, (2) Gel Donut head immobilizer: 0.064223 g ± 0.027463, (3) PETG headrest: 0.053331 g ± 0.037782, and (4) TPU headrest: 0.056254 g ± 0.032200. The PETG headrest showed a 21.71% improvement over no headrest and a 16.96% improvement over the gel donut headrest in maintaining head stability. And the TPU headrest showed a 17.41% improvement over no headrest and a 12.41% improvement over the gel donut headrest in maintaining head stability. CONCLUSIONS: The PETG and TPU headrest provided greater stability compared to the commonly used Gel Head Donut headrest and in the absence of a headrest. This study suggests that the design of this headrest offers a potential noninvasive head stability device, regardless of material composition, that may improve the safety and efficacy of orbital and skull base surgery. </p>","PeriodicalId":72036,"journal":{"name":"3D printing in medicine","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2026-04-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13047818/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147596517","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Evaluation of 3D-printed vs. digital models in simulation-based training for iliac endovascular interventions.","authors":"David Wippel, Miar Ouaret, Inez Ohashi Torres, Michaela Kluckner, Maximilian Lutz, Moritz Wegner, Bernhard Dorweiler, Elke R Gizewski, Florian K Enzmann, Sabine Wipper","doi":"10.1186/s41205-026-00320-2","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s41205-026-00320-2","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>This study assessed two different 3D-printed endovascular simulation models and a digital simulator for training of endovascular interventions.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>Thirty-two vascular surgeons and radiologists completed interventions using two transparent 3D-printed models-a flexible model, printed with Stereolithography (SLA), and a stiff model using Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) technology -as well as a digital simulator. A standardized questionnaire assessed the models' perceived face and construct validity as well as their concurrent validity. Additionally, the impact of model material (flexible vs. stiff) on perceived fidelity and utility were evaluated.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>All participants completed the three interventions successfully. There was an even distribution of sex (16 males and females) and experience among the participants. The flexible 3D-printed model demonstrated significantly higher face and construct validity scores compared to the stiff model and the digital simulator (p < 0.001). No significant differences were observed between the digital and stiff models for face and construct validity (p = 1.0, p = 0.38). Regarding concurrent validity, there was a significant preference for the 3D-printed models (72% vs. 16%; p < 0.001). The flexible 3D-printed models were strongly favoured (82% vs. 9%; p < 0.001) due to higher scores regarding fidelity of the experienced resistance and tactile response (p < 0.001). Most participants (81%) expressed a desire for regular simulation training.</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>Transparent 3D-printed models present a valuable, and potentially superior, alternative to established digital simulators. They achieve higher scores in face and construct validity as well as surpass the digital simulator in concurrent validity. Flexibility emerges as a key factor, significantly enhancing the fidelity and overall training experience of 3D-printed models.</p>","PeriodicalId":72036,"journal":{"name":"3D printing in medicine","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13063738/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147576577","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Application of mixed augmented reality with holographic platform for interactive teaching of veterinary osteology.","authors":"Caio Landi Reimão, Antônio Chaves de Assis Neto","doi":"10.1186/s41205-026-00313-1","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s41205-026-00313-1","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>BACKGROUND: Veterinary anatomy education increasingly demands innovative strategies to enhance spatial understanding and student engagement. Mixed augmented reality (MAR) has emerged as a promising tool, integrating virtual anatomical models into real environments. This study aimed to describe the pratical implemention and evaluate the pedagogical benefits of a MAR-based holographic platform for teaching selected osteological structures in veterinary anatomy. METHODS: A Veterinary Anatomy Holographic Platform (VAHP) was developed using 3D digitized bone models integrated into a mixed reality display. Anatomical models of equine skull, scapula, femur, and the canine axis were processed using photogrammetry and 3D Slicer, then rendered with Unreal Engine 4.27. The platform was implemented during regular classrom session with 80 veterinary students. Learners interacted with the holographic models and subsequently completed a four-question proficiency test. Results were compared to a control activity using real anatomical specimens and analyzed using Z-tests for two proportions. RESULTS: Significant improvements in permfomance were observed in three of the four test questions after using the VAHP (p < 0.05), particularly for structure requiring complex spatial reasoning. No statistical improvement was found for one question (p = 0.058). The holographic session were well accepted by students and promoted engagement in the classroom. CONCLUSIONS: This proof-of-concept study showed that the VAHP, delivered through a mixed reality headset, can enhance anatomical learning and engagement in osteology. Broader and longer-term studies are needed to confirm its impact and guide curriculum integration. </p>","PeriodicalId":72036,"journal":{"name":"3D printing in medicine","volume":"12 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12969896/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147391519","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Use and regulation of patient-specific three-dimensional printing in medicine: a survey of physician end-users.","authors":"Ruth Shaylor, Yotam Lior, Jillian Shapiro, Thomas Ferretto, Frank J Rybicki, Jasamine Coles-Black","doi":"10.1186/s41205-026-00316-y","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s41205-026-00316-y","url":null,"abstract":"<p><strong>Background: </strong>Technological advancements have made 3D printing more accessible and affordable for both individuals and institutions. Despite significant efforts by the International Medical Device Regulators Forum to standardize 3D printing regulations for medical use, challenges remain. We conducted a survey to gather insights from physician end-users on their opinions regarding the regulation of 3D printing in medicine. Additionally, since FDA guidance is often adopted internationally, this survey aimed to capture the demographics of physician end-users globally and provide a snapshot of the current use of 3D printing in clinical practice and research.</p><p><strong>Methods: </strong>After developing and validating a 26-question survey, we emailed it to the corresponding authors of all PubMed-indexed publications on 3D printing in medicine. Participants received an introductory email explaining the survey's purpose and an invitation to participate. Only responses from participants who declared themselves to be physicians were accepted. The survey was open for responses from April 5th to May 3rd, 2022, with weekly reminders sent until the response period closed. Responses with at least 80% survey completion were accepted for analysis.</p><p><strong>Results: </strong>Out of 951 surveys sent, we received 114 responses (11.9%) with an average completion rate of 89%. Most respondents were from Europe (35.5%) and North America (30.9%), followed by Australia and New Zealand (9.1%). The majority were affiliated with academic institutions (83.9%) and were primarily surgeons (49.1%). The most common application of 3D printing was surgical planning (74.1%), followed by medical education (61.6%). Nearly 50% of respondents used open-source segmentation software without FDA approval. Most had access to an onsite printer (82.2%) and specially trained staff to assist with segmentation (53.4%).</p><p><strong>Conclusions: </strong>The integration of 3D printing technologies into clinical practice will continue to grow. This paper presents the largest survey of physicians practicing 3D printing to date. Given the underrepresentation of this key demographic within regulatory bodies, the opinions and positions of physician respondents reported here should be considered in the development and application of new guidelines and regulations in the field.</p>","PeriodicalId":72036,"journal":{"name":"3D printing in medicine","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2026-03-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC13001376/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147327963","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Development and validation of an affordable freehand scanning 3D ultrasound reconstruction system with visual positioning.","authors":"Jiaojiao Ma, Zuxi Huang, Liangkai Wang, Xuejiao Yu, Yanghua Zhang, Heng Xie, Bo Zhang","doi":"10.1186/s41205-025-00301-x","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s41205-025-00301-x","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>OBJECTIVE: Three-dimensional (3D) ultrasound provides more intuitive, detailed, and comprehensive diagnostic information. The primary objective of this study was to develop affordable, lightweight, and wide-field 3D ultrasound probes which is a critical challenge for expanding the accessibility and utility of this technology. METHODS: We describe an affordable freehand scanning 3D ultrasound reconstruction system. The system utilizes a QR code film attached to the skin surface for positioning. During each ultrasound scan, a lightweight camera fixed on the probe records the QR codes within the scanning area. Based on QR code features, a skin map is constructed, and ultrasound images and film image information are preprocessed. The calibration relationship between the ultrasound probe and camera field of view is determined. Finally, comprehensive algorithms such as ORB-SLAM positioning are used for three-dimensional image reconstruction. RESULTS: Through hand-scanning tests, the results show that the scanning speed is 15 mm/s, and when the image acquisition frame rates are 10 Fps/s, 20 Fps/s, and 30 Fps/s, the maximum cumulative error of ORB-SLAM algorithm positioning does not exceed 2%, meeting the positioning requirements of the intelligent skin texture image reconstruction system for thyroid ultrasound. Additionally, the effectiveness of three-dimensional reconstruction is verified through model volume testing. CONCLUSION: The intelligent skin texture image reconstruction system for ultrasound can achieve 3D image reconstruction, displaying lesion features and the spatial positions of surrounding tissues in three-dimensional space, thereby assisting ultrasound doctors in making accurate and rapid diagnoses. Clinical trial number: not applicable. </p>","PeriodicalId":72036,"journal":{"name":"3D printing in medicine","volume":"12 1","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2026-02-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12933897/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147286090","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Teaching punch biopsy and suturing with a 3D-printed skin model: design and integration into the medical curriculum.","authors":"Sandra Schuh, Stefan Schiele, Anna Rubeck, Ludwig Christian Hinske, Julia Welzel, Alexander Schneller","doi":"10.1186/s41205-026-00317-x","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s41205-026-00317-x","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>BACKGROUND: In the 2019/2020 winter semester, the University of Augsburg’s Faculty of Medicine introduced a competence-oriented model degree program with a spiral curriculum integrating theory and practice. A key feature, the clinical longitudinal course, emphasizes practical skills such as skin examination. Existing training materials for punch biopsies, e.g., foam models and fruit, have proven insufficient. This project aimed to create a realistic, cost-effective, reusable three-dimensional (3D) skin model to improve the teaching of punch biopsy and suturing techniques. METHODS: The 3D skin model was developed in a multistage process. It began with a 3D scan created via a handheld 3D scanner and refined in 3D modeling software. A fused deposition modeling (FDM) printer produced negative molds that were filled with silicone, resulting in a realistic model. After several iterations, a design was achieved that successfully simulated the tactile and functional aspects of punch biopsy and skin suturing. Student feedback was collected through an anonymous online questionnaire assessing perceived realism, usefulness for practicing punch biopsies and suturing, and impact on their confidence. RESULTS: The silicone-based skin simulator debuted in the 2023–2024 winter semester’s ‘examination of the skin’ course. A total of 82 students participated in the course, of whom 58 completed the evaluation questionnaire. The students used the model to perform punch biopsies and suturing, reporting that its material properties allowed these procedures to be practiced under course conditions. With a low production cost (of 0.62 € per model) compared to commercial models, it is a cost-efficient alternative to previous materials. The students provided positive feedback, reporting increased confidence in performing these procedures on humans for the first time. CONCLUSIONS: The 3D training model is an important advancement in introducing 3D technologies in practical training, providing realistic, cost-effective practice for punch biopsy and suturing. Its successful integration into the curriculum highlights its potential for broader applications in medical education. The evaluation indicated that the model provided realistic skin properties and proved effective for practicing punch biopsies and suturing, thus addressing the limitations of traditional training materials. </p>","PeriodicalId":72036,"journal":{"name":"3D printing in medicine","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2026-02-24","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12947330/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147286095","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"3D printing enabled biomechanical evaluation of a novel expandable wedge spacer for atlantoaxial reduction.","authors":"Chih-Chang Chang, Shao-Fu Huang, Rong-Chen Lin, Chun-Li Lin","doi":"10.1186/s41205-026-00314-0","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s41205-026-00314-0","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Atlantoaxial subluxation (AAS) is a severe instability of the craniovertebral junction that may cause progressive spinal cord compression and neurological impairment. Achieving complete reduction remains challenging when anterior inclination deformity of the atlas limits posterior traction. This study introduces a novel titanium alloy expandable wedge-shaped spacer designed to correct the anterior inclination of the atlantoaxial joint (AAJ) and facilitate controlled distraction and reduction. The implant integrates a two-stage expansion mechanism that enables sequential anterior elevation and fixation stability. To overcome the scarcity of cadaveric specimens, a patient-specific 3D-printed C1–C2 model was reconstructed from clinical CT data to replicate pathological morphology, simulate ligament behavior, and provide a reproducible biomechanical testing platform. Static and fatigue compression tests, performed according to ASTM F2077 and ISO 23089-2, demonstrated superior load-bearing strength (6725 ± 123 N) and long-term durability over 5 million cycles at 1650 N, with an expansion torque of only 52.56 ± 7.54 N·mm. Reduction experiments using the 3D-printed platform showed that the spacer decreased the required traction force by approximately 70% and redirected the reduction trajectory toward the physiological axis. The integration of medical imaging and high-resolution 3D printing enabled precise replication of patient-specific anatomy and standardized mechanical evaluation that is otherwise unachievable with cadaveric models. This study highlights how 3D printing enables patient-specific modeling, quantitative validation, and iterative optimization of implant design—illustrating its critical role in bridging preclinical testing and clinical translation for complex spinal applications.</p>","PeriodicalId":72036,"journal":{"name":"3D printing in medicine","volume":" ","pages":"4"},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2026-02-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12874940/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146115178","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Comparing conventional versus 3D printed simulators for simulation training of emergency percutaneous cricothyrotomy with two different kits: a randomized controlled trial.","authors":"Moritz Wegner, Fabian Dusse, Finnard Beeser, Nicolas Leister, Marian Lefarth, Simon-Richard Finke, Bernd W Böttiger, Andrea U Steinbicker, Bernhard Dorweiler, Sandra Emily Stoll","doi":"10.1186/s41205-026-00315-z","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s41205-026-00315-z","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>INTRODUCTION: Effective procedural training is crucial for emergency interventions such as percutaneous cricothyrotomy (PC). This study evaluated simulation-based training of PC by comparing two simulators, a commercially available conventional simulator (CSIM) and an innovative 3D-printed simulator (3DSIM), and assessed their impact on procedural performance and subjective safety perceptions using two different PC kits: Quicktrach II (direct puncture method) and Surgicric III (Seldinger technique). METHODS: Forty-four participants underwent standardized theoretical training and were randomized into two groups: Group A initially trained with CSIM and Group B with 3DSIM. In both groups, procedural performance was evaluated immediately after each simulation session on porcine trachea models by two blinded assessors. Outcomes included procedural time, standardized performance scores, and subjective safety ratings. Participant evaluations of educational benefit and simulator realism were also recorded. Training effectiveness was reassessed in a second session using a crossover design, allowing direct comparison of the two simulators and kits. RESULTS: Procedural performance improved significantly after repeated training, with no significant differences between CSIM and 3DSIM regarding procedural times (p = 0.98) or accuracy scores (p = 0.99). Both PC kits showed significantly reduced procedural times (Quicktrach II: 42 ± 46 to 19 ± 7 s, p < 0.01; Surgicric III: 119 ± 73 to 91 ± 51 s, p = 0.03). Accuracy improved significantly only for Surgicric III (95 ± 10% to 98 ± 4%, p = 0.04). Participants’ perceived safety improved similarly for both simulators (44 ± 20% to 94 ± 9%), without differences in educational benefit or realism ratings. CONCLUSION: Conventional and 3D-printed simulators were equally effective in enhancing procedural performance and subjective safety perceptions in PC training. Procedural time improvements differed by kit complexity, suggesting Quicktrach II offers quicker initial mastery, whereas Surgicric III may require additional practice due to its greater complexity. These results support flexible simulator choice based on local factors like cost and availability, underscoring the potential of 3D-printed simulators for procedural training programs. CLINICAL TRIAL NUMBER: Not applicable. </p>","PeriodicalId":72036,"journal":{"name":"3D printing in medicine","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2026-02-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12930934/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146108413","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A review of 3D printed medical implant design.","authors":"Jatinder Madan, Paul Witherell, David W Rosen","doi":"10.1186/s41205-025-00300-y","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s41205-025-00300-y","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This paper reviews the design of customized 3D printed (also referred to as additively manufactured) implants. A focus is placed on the information flow of design as it is processed, starting from a patient’s scan and culminating with the 3D printing compatible customized implant’s design. We discuss the challenges related to the introduction of 3D printing technologies into the design of the implant, the variabilities encountered, and opportunities for standardization. The paper identifies research and standardization gaps in four stages of a 3D printed customized implant’s design process, namely, medical imaging, constructing CAD (3D) model of VOI, design, and 3D printing compatible file formatting. We hope the paper will help drive research to overcome future challenges encountered in the design process of 3D printed customized medical implants.</p>","PeriodicalId":72036,"journal":{"name":"3D printing in medicine","volume":"12 1","pages":"3"},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12829162/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146020770","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Intraoperative use of mixed reality (MR) in humans across surgical disciplines: a major review.","authors":"Rafal Nowak, Maja Nowak, Marek Rękas, Mohammad Javed Ali","doi":"10.1186/s41205-025-00305-7","DOIUrl":"10.1186/s41205-025-00305-7","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The objective of the present work is to assess the intraoperative utility, operative benefits, and limitations of mixed reality (MR) by reviewing the entire literature across surgical disciplines. A focused literature search was conducted on December 12, 2024, across major databases, including PubMed, EMBASE, and Cochrane. The review included original studies that examined intraoperative MR applications in human surgical procedures with a technology readiness level (TRL) of 6 or higher. Exclusion criteria ruled out studies involving augmented reality (AR) or virtual reality (VR) alone, as well as non-English literature and conference proceedings. Selected studies were categorized based on their application in surgical navigation, image guidance, and image reference. A total of 41 studies met the inclusion criteria, covering 760 patients across multiple surgical disciplines. Three primary MR applications were identified: (1) Surgical navigation (MR-SN): used for real-time instrument tracking and trajectory definition in procedures such as spinal surgery, neurosurgery, and maxillofacial surgery; (2) Image guidance (MR-IG): employed for visual overlay of 3D models onto anatomical landmarks without instrument tracking, primarily in visceral, plastic, and reconstructive surgery; (3) Image reference (MR-IR): utilized as a static 3D reference model adjacent to the surgical field in various disciplines, including ophthalmology and interventional radiology. The Microsoft HoloLens and HoloLens 2 were the most used head-mounted displays (HMDs), with additional applications of Magic Leap 2 and xvision Spine System. MR demonstrated improvements in surgical precision, efficiency, and visualization. However, limitations such as ergonomic discomfort, latency, narrow field of view, and challenges in anatomical superimposition were noted. Mixed reality is an emerging technology with the potential to enhance intraoperative visualization, guidance, and navigation across multiple surgical disciplines. Several challenges limit its widespread adoption. Further clinical trials and regulatory approvals are required to establish MR as a standard tool in surgical practice.</p>","PeriodicalId":72036,"journal":{"name":"3D printing in medicine","volume":" ","pages":"59"},"PeriodicalIF":3.1,"publicationDate":"2025-12-26","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC12746634/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145835331","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}