Journal of Nanoparticle Research最新文献

{"title":"Ultrathin SiO₂-coated magnetic iron oxide nanoparticle clusters for magnetic hyperthermia: effect of silica layer thickness on magnetothermal performance","authors":"Tianyu Chen,&nbsp;Pyung Won Im,&nbsp;Hoonsub Kim,&nbsp;Hwichan Hong,&nbsp;Wang Zhang,&nbsp;Bo Quan,&nbsp;Sun Ha Paek,&nbsp;Yuanzhe Piao","doi":"10.1007/s11051-026-06767-y","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11051-026-06767-y","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) for magnetically induced hyperthermia have steadily increased because they can convert alternating magnetic field (AMF) energy into localized heat. Among numerous candidates, silica-coated magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONs/SiO₂) are particularly attractive owing to their improved colloidal stability and potential biocompatibility. However, the influence of ultrathin SiO₂ layers on the magnetothermal behavior of cluster-like MION assemblies remains insufficiently understood. Here, SiO₂ layers with thicknesses of approximately 2, 4, and 6 nm were deposited onto MIONs using a sol–gel method to produce SiO₂-coated MION clusters, designated MIONs/SiO₂-1, MIONs/SiO₂-2, and MIONs/SiO₂-3, respectively. The heating performance of these SiO₂-coated MION clusters was evaluated in aqueous dispersions at different Fe concentrations under an AMF of 100 kHz and 140 Oe. Among the prepared samples, MIONs/SiO₂-1 showed the most favorable Fe-normalized heating performance within the tested sample series at an Fe concentration of 6 mg mL⁻¹, achieving a specific absorption rate (SAR) of 80.11 ± 3.51 W g⁻¹ and an intrinsic loss power (ILP) of 6.454 ± 0.283 nH·m²·kg⁻¹. These values were higher than those of uncoated MIONs and the other silica-coated samples. This study indicates that an ultrathin SiO₂ layer of approximately 2 nm was associated with a favorable balance between colloidal stabilization and magnetic heating efficiency within the tested sample series, providing useful insight into silica layer design for SiO₂-coated MION clusters in magnetic hyperthermia studies.</p><h3>Graphical abstract</h3>\u0000<div><figure><div><div><picture><source><img></source></picture></div></div></figure></div></div>","PeriodicalId":653,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Nanoparticle Research","volume":"28 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.5,"publicationDate":"2026-09-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11051-026-06767-y.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148927402","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Carbon dots: a promising antibacterial and anti-biofilm agent","authors":"Peili Li,&nbsp;Siyu Zhang,&nbsp;Xiaoqing Yu,&nbsp;Junhua Chen,&nbsp;Yunhe Xu,&nbsp;Da Zhang,&nbsp;Xiang Ke,&nbsp;Zirong Li","doi":"10.1007/s11051-026-06759-y","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11051-026-06759-y","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Bacterial infections and biofilm formation pose significant threats to human health and industrial processes. Traditional antibacterial approaches are increasingly challenged by the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Carbon dots (CDs), a class of zero-dimensional carbon-based nanomaterials, have emerged as promising candidates for antibacterial and anti-biofilm applications. This review comprehensively summarizes the current state-of-the-art in this field. It begins with an overview of the background, highlighting the severity of bacterial-related problems and the limitations of traditional methods. The definition, core structural features, and optical properties of CDs are then systematically introduced, with a comparative analysis of CDs versus traditional semiconductor quantum dots and organic fluorescent dyes. The main part of the review delves into the antibacterial and anti-biofilm mechanisms of CDs, including reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, membrane disruption, interference with bacterial metabolism, prevention of bacterial adhesion, and disruption of quorum sensing, with critical grading of evidence strength for each mechanism. Additionally, various synthesis methods of CDs, such as top-down and bottom-up approaches, are discussed in terms of their impact on the properties of CDs relevant to antibacterial and anti-biofilm activities, with a quantitative structure–activity relationship summary. The review also covers the wide-ranging applications of CDs in biomedical, environmental, food-related and emerging sensing fields. Finally, the existing challenges, including batch-to-batch consistency in large-scale production, long-term in vivo biocompatibility, and stability in complex environments are critically analyzed, and future perspectives such as multifunctional theranostic CDs and structure-guided rational design are presented. Overall, CDs hold great potential in combating bacterial infections and biofilm-related issues, but further research and development are needed to fully realize their practical applications.</p><h3>Graphical Abstract</h3>\u0000<div><figure><div><div><picture><source><img></source></picture></div></div></figure></div></div>","PeriodicalId":653,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Nanoparticle Research","volume":"28 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.5,"publicationDate":"2026-09-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148926826","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Theoretical insights of neutral, cationic and anionic [RePd]Z [Z = 1–8] nanoalloy clusters through CDFT approach","authors":"Vinita Rohlan,&nbsp;Prabhat Ranjan,&nbsp;Praveen Kumar Surolia,&nbsp;Tanmoy Chakraborty","doi":"10.1007/s11051-026-06757-0","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11051-026-06757-0","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Nanoalloy clusters have emerged as valuable materials for the building block of nanodevices. Bimetallic nanoalloy clusters exhibit the distinctive inimitable catalytic, optoelectronic and magnetic characteristics. In this report, neutral, cationic and anionic bimetallic [RePd]_Z [Z = 1–8] nanoalloy clusters are examined through density functional theory approach. Geometry optimization of [RePd] clusters is performed using Gaussian 16. Functional B3PW91/LANL2DZ is chosen to optimize the structure of [RePd]. Lowest energy structure and isomers of [RePd]_Z are identified. Relative stabilities, binding energy and <span>({Delta}_{2}E)</span> of [RePd]_Z clusters is calculated. Binding energy rises with the value of Z, except at Z = 4. Magic number of relative stabilities is observed for [RePd]₅. HOMO-LUMO gap of [RePd]_Z, <span>({[RePd]}_{Z}^{+})</span> and <span>({[RePd]}_{Z}^{-})</span> clusters fluctuate from 0.978 to 1.552 eV, 0.564 to 2.033 eV and −0.769 to 1.119 eV, respectively. In case of neutral clusters, [HOMO-LUMO]_max and [HOMO-LUMO]_min are found at Z = 4 and Z = 6, respectively. CDFT-based descriptors are determined. [RePd]_Z clusters at Z = 4 exhibit largest VIP, hardness and electronegativity. Optical and thermochemical characteristics of [RePd] clusters are also studied. [RePd]_Z clusters displayed direct correlation between HOMO-LUMO and optical electronegativity whereas contrary relation among HOMO-LUMO and refractive index. Thermochemical parameters increase with the function of Z. Result exhibits that bimetallic [RePd] nanoalloy clusters may be suitable for applications in solar cells, nonlinear optical systems and building blocks for nanodevices.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":653,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Nanoparticle Research","volume":"28 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.5,"publicationDate":"2026-09-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148926992","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Electrochemical sensor based on face-centered cubic and hexagonal closed-packed AuNPs/carbon allotrope hybrid nanostructures to determine 17α-ethinylestradiol in water and urine","authors":"Yasmin F. Torres,&nbsp;Joao H. A. Ferreira,&nbsp;Renato M. Peres,&nbsp;Thiago C. Canevari","doi":"10.1007/s11051-026-06768-x","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11051-026-06768-x","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>This work describes the synthesis, characterization, and electrochemical application of an innovative hexagonal closed-packed and cubic face-centered AuNPs/Cdots/MWCNTs hybrid nanostructure obtained by directly reducing gold citrate in an alcoholic solution of carbon dots. UV–vis spectroscopy, XRD, HR-TEM, XPS, and electrochemical techniques have been used to characterize this hybrid nanostructure. The AuNPs/Cdots/MWCNTs hybrid nanostructure has been dispersed on a carbon-screen-printed electrode surface, showing excellent electrocatalytic activity for the determination of 17α-ethinylestradiol in Britton-Robinson buffer (pH 6) by differential pulse voltammetry, with a detection limit of 67 nmol L⁻¹. The detection of 17α-ethinylestradiol was also performed in the presence of potential interferents, including ascorbic acid, dopamine, progesterone, and glucose, which did not significantly interfere with the determination. The detection was also performed in tap water and urine.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":653,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Nanoparticle Research","volume":"28 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.5,"publicationDate":"2026-09-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11051-026-06768-x.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148926980","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Ultra-small biocompatible Gd2O3-Cit nanoparticles for improved T1-weighted MR imaging and renal clearance","authors":"Hui Liao,&nbsp;Zhenxiong Wang,&nbsp;Bing Wu,&nbsp;Hongyun Li,&nbsp;Bin Zhang,&nbsp;Yuchao Wang,&nbsp;Jie Fang","doi":"10.1007/s11051-026-06762-3","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11051-026-06762-3","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Gadolinium-based contrast agents (GBCAs) are widely used in clinical MRI, yet their utility is constrained by low relaxivity, rapid clearance, and safety concerns associated with Gd³⁺ release, driving the need for safer and more efficient alternatives. In this study, we employed surface ligand engineering to achieve enhanced T₁ relaxivity while maintaining a low r₂/r₁ ratio for high-quality T₁ imaging. Ultrasmall citrate-coated Gd₂O₃ nanoparticles (Gd₂O₃-Cit) were synthesized via a two-step ligand exchange strategy. At 3.0 T, the nanoparticles exhibit an r₁ of 8.714 mM⁻¹ s⁻¹, approximately 2.3-fold higher than Magnevist. Critically, the r₂/r₁ ratio is as low as 1.06, approaching the theoretical optimum of unity and one of the lowest reported values for Gd₂O₃-based T₁ contrast agents. <i>In vivo</i> T₁-weighted MRI demonstrates notable vascular enhancement in the liver, with a plasma elimination half-life of 113.8 min. Cytotoxicity, hemolysis, and short-term histological assessments indicate preliminary biocompatibility under the conditions tested. These findings demonstrate that surface ligand engineering can effectively enhance T₁ relaxivity while maintaining a low r₂/r₁ ratio with minimal T₂ interference, offering a design strategy for high‑performance T₁ contrast agents.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":653,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Nanoparticle Research","volume":"28 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.5,"publicationDate":"2026-09-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148926370","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Concentration-dependent morphology evolution and charge transport in graphene-modified P3HT:PCBM bulk heterojunction organic photovoltaic nanocomposites","authors":"Hyung Jin Kim,&nbsp;Kangwook Lee,&nbsp;Byungyou Hong","doi":"10.1007/s11051-026-06761-4","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11051-026-06761-4","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Graphene nanosheets were incorporated into P3HT:PCBM bulk heterojunction organic photovoltaic (OPV) films at concentrations of 0–0.01 wt% to clarify how graphene loading affects film organization and device performance. Raman spectroscopy confirmed the characteristic structural features of the graphene nanosheets, while UV–visible absorption and photoluminescence (PL) measurements showed slightly enhanced optical absorption and pronounced PL quenching (&gt; 90%), respectively. X-ray diffraction (XRD) revealed an increase in the P3HT (100) diffraction intensity, consistent with enhanced molecular ordering, and SEM/AFM analyses showed concentration-dependent changes in surface morphology. The device containing 0.005 wt% graphene exhibited the highest performance, with a short-circuit current density of 8.56 mA cm⁻² and a power conversion efficiency of 2.60%, corresponding to improvements of 23.2% and 31.3%, respectively, relative to the pristine device. The combined optical, structural, morphological, and photovoltaic trends suggest that moderate graphene incorporation can promote favorable film organization and charge extraction, whereas excessive loading is associated with localized graphene agglomeration and a decline in device performance. Because the present measurements do not directly resolve the internal donor–acceptor interface or microscopic recombination pathways, the proposed morphology–transport relationship is interpreted as a mechanism consistent with the experimental trends rather than as direct proof. These results identify 0.005 wt% as the optimum graphene loading under the present processing conditions and highlight the importance of controlling graphene concentration in P3HT:PCBM nanocomposites.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":653,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Nanoparticle Research","volume":"28 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.5,"publicationDate":"2026-09-03","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148926369","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Integrating entomopathogenic nematodes and nanotechnology for next-generation insect pest management","authors":"Anshu Guleria,&nbsp;Himani Thakur,&nbsp;Sapna Kumari,&nbsp;Neelam Thakur","doi":"10.1007/s11051-026-06760-5","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11051-026-06760-5","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) are effective biological control agents that have demonstrated efficacy against a broad range of insect pests and generally exhibit low adverse effects on non-target organisms under recommended application conditions. Even though they showed advantages, their large-scale application is limited by various factors, viz., low tolerance to environmental stresses, reduced persistence under field conditions, and other challenges in storage and delivery. In the current scenario, nanotechnology has emerged as a promising tool to address the above-mentioned constraints and boost the insecticidal potential of biological control agents like EPNs. The integration of nanotechnology with EPNs offers new prospects in next-generation pest management. The nano-based formulations, such as nanoemulsions, nanocarriers, and nano-based coatings, can improve nematode survival, stability, and infectivity. All these systems protect the EPNs from harsh environmental conditions, such as temperature extremes, ultraviolet radiation, and desiccation, and also permit controlled and targeted release and target-specific release. The nano-enhanced EPNs resulted in improved efficiency of pest management, even by reducing application frequency. This integrated approach aligns with the principles of eco-friendly and sustainable agriculture by reducing dependency on chemical insecticides and supporting integrated pest management (IPM) programs. The various challenges associated with environment safety, production costs, and regulatory approvals must be handled carefully. Constant research, as well as field validation, is essential to understand the combined potential of EPNs with nanotechnology for effective and sustainable pest management tactics.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":653,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Nanoparticle Research","volume":"28 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.5,"publicationDate":"2026-09-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148926243","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A recyclable polyvinylpyrrolidone-stabilized nickel nitroprusside nanocatalyst for efficient catalytic reduction of metronidazol","authors":"Hend Z. Yamani,&nbsp;Reham Fekry,&nbsp;Khadiga M. Kelani,&nbsp;Maha F. Abdel-Ghany,&nbsp;Amr M. Mahmoud","doi":"10.1007/s11051-026-06756-1","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11051-026-06756-1","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The presence of antibiotic pollutants in wastewater poses a significant threat to public health and the environment, contributing to the rise of antibiotic resistance and the disruption of ecosystems. Effective strategies are urgently needed to transform these hazardous compounds into environmentally safe products. In this study, we report the synthesis and catalytic performance of a cost-effective polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP)-stabilized nickel nitroprusside nanocatalyst for the reduction of metronidazole (MNZ). The nanocatalyst was synthesized via a simple, low-cost chemical co-precipitation method, avoiding the use of hazardous solvents. The nanocatalyst was systematically characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX), high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-TEM), selected area electron diffraction (SAED), dynamic light scattering (DLS) with zeta potential measurements, and nitrogen adsorption–desorption analysis, to investigate its structural, morphological, colloidal, and textural properties. The catalytic reduction of MNZ using NaBH₄ was monitored by UV–visible spectroscopy, with the PVP-stabilized nickel nitroprusside serving as the nanocatalyst. Remarkably, a catalyst loading of only 10 µg per reaction was sufficient to achieve complete MNZ reduction within 90 s, yielding a rate constant (<i>k</i>) of 0.0385 s⁻¹. In addition to its strong catalytic activity, the nanocatalyst exhibited excellent stability and reusability, retaining its efficiency over 10 consecutive cycles with minimal loss in activity. These results highlight the potential of this nanocatalyst as a promising, cost-effective, and environmentally sustainable solution for the rapid removal of hazardous antibiotics during wastewater treatment.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":653,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Nanoparticle Research","volume":"28 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.5,"publicationDate":"2026-08-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148838030","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Engineering green nanocarriers using natural deep eutectic solvents: a sustainable platform for modern drug delivery","authors":"Narendra Bajirao Patil,&nbsp;Subash C. B. Gopinath","doi":"10.1007/s11051-026-06749-0","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11051-026-06749-0","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Nanocarrier-based drug delivery displays substantial rewards over conventional drug delivery systems. However, conventional drug delivery systems face numerous challenges, such as lack of targeted delivery, fluctuation in drug release and possible side effect, frequent dosing requirements, environmental hazards, and high costs. To respond this issue, there is an urgent need to design an innovative tactic to overwhelm the restrictions of current methods. Fortunately, in recent decades, natural deep eutectic solvents (NADES) have emerged as a promising class for drug delivery due to their unique multimodal properties, such as greener nature, non-toxic and cost-effective solvents. NADES-integrated nanocarriers resolve the challenges associated with the poor solubility of drugs and phytochemicals. This review comprehensively discusses NADES as sustainable solvents, including their synthesis methods and compositions, an overview of NADES-based nanocarriers along with a comparative analysis of their advantages and disadvantages, and mechanisms of NADES-based nanocarrier systems. Furthermore, it highlights the novel use of NADES-based nanocarriers in drug delivery, wound healing, anti-inflammatory therapy, anticancer and dry eye syndrome management, cosmeceuticals, and the biomedical field. This review identifies challenges, research gaps, and opportunities for translating NADES-based nanocarrier technologies from laboratory-scale to clinical and industrial applications. Lastly, this review may serve as a theoretical foundation for the broader application of NADES-based nanocarriers in pharmaceutical and biomedical fields.</p><h3>Graphical Abstract</h3>\u0000<div><figure><div><div><picture><source><img></source></picture></div></div></figure></div></div>","PeriodicalId":653,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Nanoparticle Research","volume":"28 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.5,"publicationDate":"2026-08-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148928037","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Protein corona influences cellular uptake and exocytosis of luminescent nanoparticles at various serum concentrations in culture medium","authors":"Iuliia Golovynska,&nbsp;Shiyun Wei,&nbsp;Kan Liu,&nbsp;Anna Golovynska,&nbsp;Qitian Lin,&nbsp;Anwar Ul Haq,&nbsp;Sergii Golovynskyi,&nbsp;Tymish Y. Ohulchanskyy,&nbsp;Junle Qu","doi":"10.1007/s11051-026-06753-4","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s11051-026-06753-4","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Nanoparticles (NPs) have emerged as pivotal tools in biomedical imaging and targeted drug delivery. The influence of cell culture microenvironment variables, particularly serum concentration, which is a key source of proteins mediating NPs-cell surface interactions and subsequent internalization, remains inadequately characterized in the context of time-dependent NP endocytosis/exocytosis. This study has addressed this critical gap by systematically investigating the time-dependent cellular uptake of negatively charged 110 nm PEG-COOH-coated CdSe NPs (NPs@PEG-COOH) into BV-2 microglial cells across physiologically relevant fetal bovine serum (FBS) conditions: serum‑free (0% FBS) and from low (1%) to high (20%). The NP endocytosis was quantified for 24 h using epifluorescence microscopy, with key time points (e.g., uptake maxima) independently validated using confocal microscopy. The comparison of NP uptake kinetics across serum-variable conditions revealed that, particularly, a low 1% serum triggered rapid NP accumulation with maximal uptake achieved within 4 h; the normal 10% serum delayed uptake saturation to 9 h; and a high 20% serum resulted in markedly slowed endocytosis with maximal uptake only reached after 16 h of incubation. The microglia at serum‑free condition exhibited a rapid accumulation of the NPs with the highest magnitude: a detectable internalization was observed as early as 10 min post-treatment, and the uptake increased sharply to reach a plateau already by 3 h. The exocytosis kinetics mirrored the endocytosis kinetics, meaning the fastest exocytosis occurred at low serum concentration. These findings not only establish a framework for standardized NP internalization protocols in vitro but also provide critical insights for optimizing NP delivery in serum-heterogeneous biological microenvironments, e.g., nutrient-deprived cancer niches or inflamed immune microenvironments, advancing the translational utility of NPs-based biomedical platforms.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":653,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Nanoparticle Research","volume":"28 9","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":3.5,"publicationDate":"2026-08-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148838289","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":4,"RegionCategory":"材料科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}