Fire Technology最新文献_第4页

Unpacking Electric Bicycle Fire Safety Governance: Baselines, Backbones, and Macro-level Drivers Within the TOE Framework 拆解电动自行车消防安全治理：TOE框架内的基线、骨干和宏观层面驱动因素

IF 2.4 3区工程技术

Fire Technology Pub Date : 2026-08-22 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-026-01990-4

Rui Cheng, Changqi Dong, Jida Liu, Song Zhang

{"title":"Unpacking Electric Bicycle Fire Safety Governance: Baselines, Backbones, and Macro-level Drivers Within the TOE Framework","authors":"Rui Cheng, Changqi Dong, Jida Liu, Song Zhang","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01990-4","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01990-4","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>The rapid growth of electric bicycles in high-density urban environments has generated escalating fire risks and new challenges for public safety governance. Existing studies have mainly examined isolated technical or administrative instruments, while paying insufficient attention to how multiple governance conditions combine to produce effective fire-risk prevention. Drawing on the technology-organization-environment (TOE) framework, this study examines how technological, organizational, and environmental conditions shape e-bike fire-safety governance. A mixed-methods design is adopted. Necessary Condition Analysis (NCA) and fuzzy-set Qualitative Comparative Analysis (fsQCA) are applied to 30 Chinese provinces to identify necessary baselines and sufficient configurations, while a supplementary XGBoost-SHAP analysis of 228 Chinese cities is used to examine predictive importance and non-linear marginal effects. The results suggest a qualified layered governance logic. Building access control functions as a non-trivial necessary baseline for preventing systemic failure. The fsQCA results reveal four equifinal pathways to high performance, in which charging infrastructure adequacy and market compliance enforcement frequently serve as configurational backbones. The city-level XGBoost-SHAP results further indicate that public fire-safety education and regional economic development are important predictive drivers of performance variation. These findings show that effective e-bike fire-safety governance requires not a single dominant instrument, but coherent policy packages that combine upstream technical compliance, infrastructure provision, access control, market enforcement, affordability, and user-oriented education.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148783098","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Analysis of Thermohydraulic Spalling in Blended Cement Concrete 水泥混凝土热液剥落分析

IF 2.4 3区工程技术

Fire Technology Pub Date : 2026-08-22 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-026-01989-x

Tim Pittrich, Frank Dehn, Frank Weise, Ludwig Stelzner

{"title":"Analysis of Thermohydraulic Spalling in Blended Cement Concrete","authors":"Tim Pittrich, Frank Dehn, Frank Weise, Ludwig Stelzner","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01989-x","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01989-x","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Recently, the construction industry has increasingly focused on the development of more sustainable transport infrastructure, such as tunnels, driven by the growing use of clinker-reduced cements. One major challenge in this context is fire exposure, which can lead to severe structural damage through concrete spalling, thereby compromising the integrity of the structure. To date, the fire-induced spalling behavior of blended cement concrete remains insufficiently understood. This is particularly concerning, given the increasing adoption of blended cements with reduced clinker content, which are expected to see widespread use in the future. Consequently, a deeper understanding of how different cement types influence spalling susceptibility is of great importance. A comprehensive study was conducted to investigate spalling behavior and analyze the associated thermohydraulic effects in concretes made with CEM I, CEM II/A-LL, CEM III/A, and CEM II/B-Q. The findings revealed that the use of blended cements generally led to increased spalling susceptibility, even in normal-strength concrete. Additional analysis indicated that blended cement concretes exhibited lower permeability and higher moisture content, both of which are likely contributors to the elevated spalling risk. Furthermore, the study showed that moisture transport during heating closely follows the dehydration behavior of the cementitious matrix. Blended cement pastes were found to contain lower quantities of early-dehydrating AFt and AFm phases, as well as more thermally stable C-(A)-S-H phases. Moreover, the incorporation of polypropylene fibers into the concrete mix effectively mitigated spalling across all cement types. Therefore, demonstrating the continued effectiveness of polypropylene fibers as a spalling prevention strategy.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-026-01989-x.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148783100","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Experimental Study on the Flexural Response of Fire-Exposed Hybrid Rebar-Reinforced Concrete Elements 火灾暴露下钢筋混凝土混合构件受弯响应试验研究

IF 2.4 3区工程技术

Fire Technology Pub Date : 2026-08-22 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-026-01997-x

R. Rajkumar, Ahmar Alam, S. Shamim Ebrahim, C. Arunkumar

{"title":"Experimental Study on the Flexural Response of Fire-Exposed Hybrid Rebar-Reinforced Concrete Elements","authors":"R. Rajkumar, Ahmar Alam, S. Shamim Ebrahim, C. Arunkumar","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01997-x","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01997-x","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>This study presents a comprehensive experimental investigation into the post-fire flexural performance of reinforced concrete (RC) prisms strengthened with hybrid steel–GFRP rebars, an area where limited data exist regarding behavior under elevated temperatures. A total of 48 prisms (500 × 100 × 100 mm) were cast using M30 and M60 concrete and reinforced with four hybrid reinforcement combinations (0, 33, 67, and 100% GFRP in the tension zone). The specimens were exposed to simulated post-fire temperatures of 500, 700 and 900 °C in a muffle furnace and subsequently tested under four-point bending. Unlike previous studies that examined either GFRP degradation or high-temperature effects in isolation, this work simultaneously evaluates residual flexural strength, stiffness degradation, ductility, and reduction factors for hybrid reinforcement systems. The results demonstrate that hybrid steel–GFRP reinforcement significantly enhances post-fire performance compared to fully GFRP systems by retaining higher load capacity, delaying brittle failure, and improving ductility. Furthermore, M60 concrete showed superior thermal resistance relative to M30 concrete, indicating synergistic benefits when combined with hybrid reinforcement. The findings highlight a novel integration of material hybridization and high-strength concrete as a viable strategy for designing fire-resilient structural elements in applications such as tunnels, industrial facilities, and high-rise structures.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148783099","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Evolution of Mechanical Properties and Modeling Analysis of CFRP-Confined Concrete-Filled Steel Tubes after Exposure to Fire 火灾后cfrp约束钢管混凝土力学性能演变及建模分析

IF 2.4 3区工程技术

Fire Technology Pub Date : 2026-08-20 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-026-01982-4

Shun Kang, Haifeng Yao, Zejiang Jia, Guangmin Hu, Kun Luo, Zheng Fei, Xingtong Zou, Zhile Shu, Baoxian Liu

{"title":"Evolution of Mechanical Properties and Modeling Analysis of CFRP-Confined Concrete-Filled Steel Tubes after Exposure to Fire","authors":"Shun Kang, Haifeng Yao, Zejiang Jia, Guangmin Hu, Kun Luo, Zheng Fei, Xingtong Zou, Zhile Shu, Baoxian Liu","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01982-4","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01982-4","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Fire exposure significantly degrades the mechanical properties of concrete-filled steel tubes (CFST) columns. This study investigates the post-fire performance of circular CFST stub columns to the ISO 834 fire curve, considering factors such as fire duration (30–60 min), concrete grade (C30–C40), and steel tube thickness (3.0–3.5 mm). The strengthening effect of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) wrapping with 1–4 layers on fire-damaged CFST columns was also evaluated. The results indicate that increasing the concrete strength grade had a more pronounced effect on improving the residual load-bearing capacity than increasing the steel tube thickness within the investigated parameter range. CFRP wrapping effectively enhanced the ultimate bearing capacity of fire-damaged CFST columns, although the marginal strength gain decreased noticeably beyond two CFRP layers. A finite element model developed using ABAQUS was used to simulate the temperature distribution and post-fire mechanical response, and a bearing-capacity prediction formula for CFRP-strengthened fire-damaged CFST columns was proposed. These findings provide a useful basis for the structural assessment and rehabilitation of fire-damaged CFST columns.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148782957","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Battery Abuse Testing and Thermal Runaway Propagation 电池滥用测试和热失控传播

IF 2.4 3区工程技术

Fire Technology Pub Date : 2026-08-20 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-026-01964-6

Christoph Meraner, Janne Siren Fjærestad, Dag Olav Snersrud, Maximilian Ludwig Weisbecker, Tian Li

{"title":"Battery Abuse Testing and Thermal Runaway Propagation","authors":"Christoph Meraner, Janne Siren Fjærestad, Dag Olav Snersrud, Maximilian Ludwig Weisbecker, Tian Li","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01964-6","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01964-6","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Thermal runaway (TR) propagation is an essential characteristic of larger lithium-ion battery fires. Cell- and module-level battery abuse tests have been conducted using large-format NMC pouch cells. In both test campaigns, heating was used to trigger TR. An electrical heater was used for the cell-level tests, and heat exposure to an external flame was used to trigger a cell-to-cell propagating TR in the modules. Cell surface temperatures were measured during both test campaigns to evaluate thermal runaway properties, including TR onset temperatures, TR max temperatures, and TR heating rates, as a function of local heating rates. The TR propagation characteristics in the modules were analysed based on the module’s temperature distribution and heat release rate. A comparison between the conditions during single-cell and full-module tests was conducted to evaluate their effects on TR and, ultimately, to determine whether cell tests are representative of the conditions during a passive propagation test or a real Lithium-ion battery fire scenario.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s10694-026-01964-6.pdf","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148783042","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Effect of Thermal Creep on Circular Hollow Section Welded T-joints Under In-Plane Bending Load 平面内弯曲载荷对圆形空心焊接t形接头热蠕变的影响

IF 2.4 3区工程技术

Fire Technology Pub Date : 2026-08-20 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-026-01994-0

Seri Kassamani, Elie G. Hantouche

{"title":"Effect of Thermal Creep on Circular Hollow Section Welded T-joints Under In-Plane Bending Load","authors":"Seri Kassamani, Elie G. Hantouche","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01994-0","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01994-0","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Thermal creep of steel is a critical factor contributing to the failure of structures exposed to elevated temperatures for extended durations. Circular hollow section (CHS) steel members are widely used in industrial, residential, and infrastructure applications, where T-joints serve as a typical connection type. While several studies have investigated the high-temperature behavior of CHS joints, the time-dependent effect of creep remains underexplored. This paper presents the results of a numerical investigation of welded CHS T-joints under in-plane bending. Finite element (FE) models developed in Abaqus were validated against experimental data, and the creep effect was analyzed under different load ratios and temperatures. A two-step approach was adopted: short-term (time-independent) simulations were first conducted to establish baseline failure loads, followed by time-dependent creep simulations. Creep in the base material (BM) had a substantial influence on joint deformation and failure, particularly at elevated temperatures and high load ratios. Creep in the weld material also reduced failure time, especially at lower load ratios where its contribution to deformation is more pronounced. Isochronous curves highlighted a transition to creep-dominated behavior beyond 550 °C, with deformation accelerating sharply over time. Two brace diameters were tested for creep. The larger diameter increased short-term strength but slightly reduced creep resistance. Joints expected to experience prolonged fire exposure, particularly at high temperatures (600 °C—700 °C), should be designed to carry only a significantly reduced fraction of their time-independent capacity. Neglecting creep effects may lead to non-conservative predictions of structural performance and premature connection failure in fire.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148782959","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Multidimensional Assessment of Combustible Fire Risks in Integrated Circuit Facilities Using the Entropy Weight-TOPSIS Method 基于熵权- topsis法的集成电路设施可燃火灾风险多维评估

IF 2.4 3区工程技术

Fire Technology Pub Date : 2026-08-20 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-026-01987-z

Zhijian Zhang, Yaohua Hou, Sicheng Li, Ying Chen, Dejian Wu, Shuanghao Li

{"title":"Multidimensional Assessment of Combustible Fire Risks in Integrated Circuit Facilities Using the Entropy Weight-TOPSIS Method","authors":"Zhijian Zhang, Yaohua Hou, Sicheng Li, Ying Chen, Dejian Wu, Shuanghao Li","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01987-z","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01987-z","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>To objectively assess fire risk in IC manufacturing facilities, where dense precision equipment and large quantities of polymer combustibles create a high‑hazard environment, this study combines cone calorimeter experiments with the entropy‑weighted TOPSIS method. Twenty typical solid combustibles covering critical functional zones were selected and tested at a radiant heat flux of 40 kW/m<sup>2</sup> per ISO 5660. Key parameters including heat release rate, smoke production rate, and CO/CO<sub>2</sub> release characteristics were obtained, establishing a three‑dimensional heat‑smoke‑toxicity indicator system (with toxicity defined as a CO‑centered surrogate). The TOPSIS method, based on the entropy weights, produced a comprehensive fire risk index (CFRI). Results show that 75% of materials are classified as high‑risk, 20% as medium‑risk, and 5% as low‑risk. Monte Carlo simulations based on normally distributed independent perturbations indicate that the CFRI coefficients of variation for all materials remain below 6.5%. A Kruskal‑Wallis test (<i>p</i> = 0.0044) confirms significant inter‑category CFRI differences within the present dataset. Physical consistency checks, benchmarks against EN 13,501‑1 and FM4910, and engineering experience collectively support the model’s practical utility. This work provides an objective, data‑driven tool for fire protection design in this specific industrial context. Nevertheless, the risk ranking is limited to the tested experimental condition (40 kW/m<sup>2</sup>); the CFRI is a relative index derived from the selected sample set rather than an absolute material rating; and the results are enterprise‑specific, requiring caution when extrapolating to other facilities</p><h3>Graphical Abstract</h3><div><figure><div><div><picture><source><img></source></picture></div></div></figure></div></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148783043","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Performance Evaluation of Limited Area Sprinkler System by Large-Scale Burn Tests 基于大规模燃烧试验的有限面积喷水灭火系统性能评价

IF 2.4 3区工程技术

Fire Technology Pub Date : 2026-08-20 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-026-01981-5

Minghao Wang, Virginia Charter, Haejun Park

{"title":"Performance Evaluation of Limited Area Sprinkler System by Large-Scale Burn Tests","authors":"Minghao Wang, Virginia Charter, Haejun Park","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01981-5","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01981-5","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Retrofitting existing high-rise buildings with full sprinkler systems poses a substantial challenge, largely due to the prohibitive costs and inherent structural constraints. As a result, many aging buildings continue to operate without adequate fire protection. To address this gap, limited area sprinkler systems have emerged as a practical and cost-effective alternative, offering enhanced fire safety without the complexities of a full retrofit. This study investigates their effectiveness through two large-scale burn experiments, comparing different installation strategies and scenarios. In experiment phase 1, system performance was evaluated during a fire that started in a non-sprinklered lobby adjacent to a sprinklered corridor. The experiment in phase 2 focused on fires originating inside the dwelling unit, comparing the effectiveness of two approaches: installing a sprinkler above the unit’s entrance door or using a 20-minute fire-rated door. During the corridor/lobby fire test, the limited area sprinkler system successfully prevented flashover and maintained tenable conditions, whereas in the absence of sprinklers, flashover occurred with temperatures exceeding 800 °C. In the scenario where the fire originated inside the dwelling unit, both protection strategies maintained tenable conditions in the corridor; however, the sprinkler installed above the unit door offered noticeably better protection within the unit itself compared to the 20-minute fire-rated door. The findings show that even limited sprinkler coverage can significantly enhance life safety, reinforcing the rationale behind building code provisions that promote retrofitting sprinklers in older structures.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148782960","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0

Developing Empirical and Graphical Indices for Fire-Induced Spalling of Concrete 开发混凝土火灾剥落的经验和图形指标

IF 2.4 3区工程技术

Fire Technology Pub Date : 2026-08-14 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-026-01985-1

Mohammad Khaled al-Bashiti, M. Z. Naser

引用次数: 0

Self-sealing Intumescent Textiles for EV Battery Fire Safety: Quantified Gap Closure and Propagation Mitigation 用于电动汽车电池火灾安全的自密封膨胀纺织品：定量的间隙关闭和传播减缓

IF 2.4 3区工程技术

Fire Technology Pub Date : 2026-08-14 DOI: 10.1007/s10694-026-01966-4

Ozlem Erdem Yilmaz, Ali Can Yilmaz, Bulent Koprulu

{"title":"Self-sealing Intumescent Textiles for EV Battery Fire Safety: Quantified Gap Closure and Propagation Mitigation","authors":"Ozlem Erdem Yilmaz, Ali Can Yilmaz, Bulent Koprulu","doi":"10.1007/s10694-026-01966-4","DOIUrl":"10.1007/s10694-026-01966-4","url":null,"abstract":"<div><p>Thermal runaway propagation (TRP) in electric-vehicle battery modules is strongly influenced by leakage pathways at seams and interfacial gaps, where hot gases and flame jets can convectively transfer heat to adjacent cells. In this work, an intumescent-coated textile wrap was developed to autonomously self-seal such discontinuities and thereby suppress TRP. A para-aramid plain-weave fabric was coated using a silicone-binder intumescent system to produce a mass-matched set comprising uncoated (T0), binder-only (T1), and intumescent-coated (T2) textiles. Thermogravimetric analysis in air showed a substantially higher residue for T2 (21.8 ± 1.9% at 800 °C) compared with T0 (3.2 ± 0.6%) and T1 (4.1 ± 0.7%), indicating enhanced condensed-phase stabilization. Under a calibrated radiant heat flux (35 kW m⁻²), T2 exhibited rapid expansion (time-to-onset 16 ± 4 s; ER<sub>max</sub> 4.9 ± 0.6) and higher post-expansion cohesion (peak compressive stress 96 ± 18 kPa). A dedicated constant-flow gap fixture quantified the self-sealing mechanism: at g = 1–2 mm, T2 achieved sealing completion and sustained high closure (ΔP/ΔP<sub>sealed</sub> at 300 s = 0.96–0.98), while controls remained near the open-gap baseline (≈ 0.07–0.12). This closure reduced backside heating; at g = 2 mm, T<sub>max</sub> behind the gap decreased from 293 ± 5 °C (T0) and 282 ± 4 °C (T1) to 173 ± 6 °C (T2). In six-cell mini-modules (21700 cells, 100% SOC), TRP occurred in 3/3 tests for T0 and 3/3 for T1 but in only 1/3 for T2 within a 30 min window; the single T2 propagation event was delayed to 24.6 min versus 6.4 ± 0.7 min (T0) and 9.6 ± 1.1 min (T1). Adjacent-cell peak temperature and module mass loss decreased to 381 ± 87 °C and 9.0 ± 2.2% for T2 compared with 619 ± 24 °C and 19.6 ± 1.3% for T0. Post-test cross-sections, SEM–EDS, and ATR-FTIR confirmed seam-over-gap bridging and phosphate-rich char formation, validating the self-sealing mechanism as the basis for TRP suppression.</p></div>","PeriodicalId":558,"journal":{"name":"Fire Technology","volume":"62 6","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":2.4,"publicationDate":"2026-08-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148751572","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

引用次数: 0