{"title":"Behavioral, neural and neurochemical basis of effort-related decision making.","authors":"Wolfgang Hauber","doi":"10.1515/revneuro-2026-0030","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1515/revneuro-2026-0030","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Effort-based decision-making refers to the process by which humans and animals choose between competing courses of action by weighing expected costs, in terms of effort, against anticipated benefits such as food reward. Although this topic has been the focus of extensive research, the behavioral, neural, and neurochemical mechanisms underlying effort-based decision-making are incompletely understood. In this review, I address these issues by focusing primarily on neurobiological studies in rodents. Using a broad range of behavioral tasks, the studies reviewed here point to a complex neural circuit underlying effort-based decision making. Key components of this circuit include the anterior cingulate cortex, the orbitofrontal cortex, the basolateral amygdala, the nucleus accumbens core and the ventral pallidum. Many of these studies do not allow for a clear dissociation of specialized roles for these regions, e.g., whether they encode effort, reward, or both. Instead, recent evidence suggests that effort-based decision making may depend on the coordinated activity across components of this neural circuit through which information from diverse neural sources is integrated in parallel. Multiple neurotransmitters and neuromodulators, as for instance, dopamine, noradrenaline, adenosine and ghrelin modulate the activity of this neural network. They likely act in concert to adapt the willingness to expend effort according to the organism's actual physiological state, the presence of environmental stimuli and the nature of available rewards, thereby supporting adaptive effort-related decision making. Implications of these findings are discussed with respect to the neural and neurochemical bases of motivational dysfunctions observed in disorders such as depression and apathy.</p>","PeriodicalId":49623,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in the Neurosciences","volume":" ","pages":""},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2026-06-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"148310035","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Marjan Falahati, Kiana Orangi, Alireza Shaabanpoor Haghighi, Negin Pouroushaninia, Nafise Niknam, Sara Soltani, Parastoo Radnia, Melika Arab Bafrani, Shabnam Shirdel, Mohammad Hadi Aarabi
{"title":"Microstructural alterations of the amygdala in neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory disorders: insights from diffusion tensor imaging.","authors":"Marjan Falahati, Kiana Orangi, Alireza Shaabanpoor Haghighi, Negin Pouroushaninia, Nafise Niknam, Sara Soltani, Parastoo Radnia, Melika Arab Bafrani, Shabnam Shirdel, Mohammad Hadi Aarabi","doi":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0083","DOIUrl":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0083","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) is a valuable method for evaluating microstructural changes in the amygdala associated with neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory disorders. This systematic review examines amygdala microstructural alterations in Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), dementia with Lewy bodies (DLB), and multiple sclerosis (MS) using DTI metrics. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we searched PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science databases through August 2025, identifying 4,442 records. After screening and eligibility assessment, 13 studies were included, comprising 1,412 patients and 1,146 healthy controls. Due to sample heterogeneity and lack of standardized effect size measures, meta-analysis was not performed. Across disorders, elevated mean diffusivity (MD) emerged as the most consistent finding, present in 100 % of AD patients and observed in all examined conditions. Reduced fractional anisotropy (FA) was the second most frequent alteration, with 36.6 % of AD patients showing decreased FA. In MS, increased radial diffusivity (RD) was prominent, while longitudinal DLB studies revealed progressive free water (FW) increases. These DTI-based microstructural changes often preceded volumetric atrophy and correlated with clinical severity. Our findings demonstrate that DTI metrics, particularly MD and FA, serve as sensitive markers of amygdala pathology across neurodegenerative diseases and may facilitate early diagnosis, disease monitoring, and differential diagnosis of these conditions.</p>","PeriodicalId":49623,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in the Neurosciences","volume":" ","pages":"289-304"},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2026-02-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146259831","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The dual role of TRPC channel-mediated dysregulation of calcium signaling in regulating mitophagy in early brain injury after subarachnoid hemorrhage.","authors":"Jieqiong Yang, Yan Zou, Xudong Zhao","doi":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0115","DOIUrl":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0115","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH) induces early brain injury (EBI) through mechanisms involving mitochondrial dysfunction and dysregulated calcium signaling. Transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC) channels are critical mediators of calcium homeostasis and have emerged as key players in SAH pathophysiology. This review explores the interconnected roles of TRPC channel-mediated calcium dyshomeostasis and mitophagy in EBI. We summarize how mitochondrial damage post-SAH triggers mitophagy via ubiquitin-dependent and -independent pathways, a process with dual effects on neuronal survival. We then detail the dual-phase roles of TRPC subtypes: early neuroprotection via TRPC1/4 and later exacerbation of injury via TRPC3/6/7, linking their activation to vascular dysfunction and inflammation. Crucially, we propose and discuss the mechanistic links through which TRPC-mediated calcium signals may directly regulate mitophagic flux, thereby influencing EBI outcomes. Targeting this TRPC-mitophagy axis with subtype- and temporal-specific strategies holds therapeutic promise for SAH.</p>","PeriodicalId":49623,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in the Neurosciences","volume":" ","pages":"305-318"},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2026-01-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146013110","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Marziah Hakim, Peytn Stokes-Marshall, Kate Beecher, Joshua Wang
{"title":"Geographic disparities in prestigious neuroscience research.","authors":"Marziah Hakim, Peytn Stokes-Marshall, Kate Beecher, Joshua Wang","doi":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0091","DOIUrl":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0091","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The researchers who conduct, author and review neuroscience studies inherently shape both the findings and the segments of society that ultimately benefit from the research. Generally, Western high-income nations dominate the production and dissemination of the majority of prestigious scientific research. However, the extent of geographic disparities across the neuroscience research pipeline, including at the level of editors, peer reviewers, authors, and research participants, have not been examined. This article synthesizes meta-research studies examining geographic disparities in neuroscience research, supplemented by an analysis of the properties of 2,013 articles published in the top five most prestigious neuroscience journals between 2014 and 2023. Our review demonstrates that editorial boards and authorship of neuroscience research remains concentrated in high-income Western nations, with some evidence to suggest that authors affiliated with non-high-income nations are increasingly represented. There is currently no direct evidence to suggest that authors affiliated with non-high-income countries experience disparities in peer review delays or public engagement with their research. However, our analysis shows that these authors' works receive fewer citations than their high-income nation-affiliated colleagues'. Further, while very few non-high-income nation-affiliated researchers first-author prestigious neuroscience publications, a relatively greater proportion of these prestigious publications use data from research participants in non-high-income nations. We conclude the review by summarizing current initiatives aimed at reducing geographic disparities in neuroscience research.</p>","PeriodicalId":49623,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in the Neurosciences","volume":" ","pages":"277-287"},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2026-01-08","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145913672","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Tingting Zhang, Ronald Kipkirui Ngetich, Junjun Zhang, Zhenlan Jin, Ling Li
{"title":"The role of emotion in economic decision making: behavioral and neurophysiological evidence from the Wheel of Fortune Gambling Task.","authors":"Tingting Zhang, Ronald Kipkirui Ngetich, Junjun Zhang, Zhenlan Jin, Ling Li","doi":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0110","DOIUrl":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0110","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Decision making is frequently influenced by factors such as an individual's emotional state, cognitive biases, social influences, and environmental constraints. Understanding how these factors influence the way decisions are made is essential for optimizing and improving this cognitive process. Therefore, this review examines the theoretical basis of emotion-influenced decision making. Here, we integrate insights from eye-tracking, electroencephalography (EEG), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) evidence, as well as behavioral findings. We specifically review evidence from studies applying the <i>Wheel of Fortune Gambling Task</i> paradigm. Through critical and reflective synthesis, we (1) present suggestions for distinguishing between emotion types in decision-making theoretical models, (2) identify key research gaps, and (3) explore innovative applications of emerging technologies. In essence, our review highlights the role of diverse emotions in decision making across theoretical models and neural mechanisms, utilizing the <i>Wheel of Fortune Gambling Task</i> paradigm to link clinical disorders with decision-making impairments. This knowledge may have implications for predicting and intervening in behavioral addictions and cognitive disorders through strategies such as the neuromodulation. Additionally, by synthesizing existing knowledge and proposing new avenues for research, this review aims to deepen understanding of emotion-driven decision making and inspire further exploration into this vital area of cognitive science.</p>","PeriodicalId":49623,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in the Neurosciences","volume":" ","pages":"261-276"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2026-01-06","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145901537","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Roger D Traub, Mark O Cunningham, Nikolaus Maier, Andreas Draguhn
{"title":"Fast cortical oscillations as a potential network mechanism for language processing.","authors":"Roger D Traub, Mark O Cunningham, Nikolaus Maier, Andreas Draguhn","doi":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0124","DOIUrl":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0124","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Since the 19th century, the study of brain mechanisms of language has depended on available tools: the clinical study of language-impaired patients, with neuropathological correlates, in the style of Broca and Wernicke; imaging techniques including MRI, functional MRI, and MRI tractography; and direct stimulation of, and recording from, the brains of conscious patients performing language tasks. These tasks can be directed or spontaneous and occur typically in the course of evaluations prior to surgery or intraoperatively. The study of brain and language occurs in the context of classical linguistics, with its (relative) distinctions between semantics and syntax, and its requirements for formal analysis in the latter. A consequence has been the effort to parcellate regions of the left hemisphere (of most individuals) in terms of distinct linguistic functions, and to characterize the anatomical connections between parcels: the various fascicles. In parallel, invasive brain recordings of activity at the level of networks or multiple single cells have allowed correlation of localized electrical signals with linguistic parameters. Recently, however, a paradigm shift has begun concerning the proper framework for interpreting language-related brain measurements. Partly this has occurred because of the success of large language models (LLMs), which do not include explicit dependence on formal syntactic/semantic distinctions. As a result, electrical brain measurements are now examined with a focus on interactions between multiple small cortical \"modules.\" In this paper, we examine the cellular physiology underlying the activities of modules and their interactions, with emphasis on the mechanisms and functions of fast brain oscillations.</p>","PeriodicalId":49623,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in the Neurosciences","volume":" ","pages":"231-260"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2025-12-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145745637","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"The versatile and multifacetic role of astrocytes in response to ketogenic interventions.","authors":"Perla Coronado-Monroy, Lourdes Massieu","doi":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0096","DOIUrl":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0096","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Ketone therapies refer to metabolic interventions aimed to elevate circulating levels of ketone bodies (KB), either through direct supplementation or stimulating endogenous production via medium-chain fatty acids intake, ketogenic diets, caloric restriction, intermittent fasting, or exercise. These strategies have gained attention as potential treatments for neurodegenerative diseases by preserving neuronal function, improving metabolic efficiency, and enhancing cellular resilience to stress. KB are taken up and metabolized by various brain cell types-including neurons, astrocytes, oligodendroglia and microglia-under basal and pathological conditions. However, their cell-type-specific effects remain incompletely understood. Notably, although astrocytes play a key role in supporting neuronal metabolism and can both produce and utilize KB, research has focused predominantly on neuronal responses, leaving the impact of ketotherapeutics on astrocytes relatively unexplored. This review aims to compile and discuss current evidence concerning astrocytes responses to both exogenous and endogenous ketotherapeutic strategies. Although still limited, available studies reveal that astrocytes undergo dynamic changes in response to these interventions, including morphological remodeling, calcium signaling modulation, transcriptional and metabolic reprogramming, regulation of transporters, and neurotransmitter uptake-a crucial process for synaptic function. Astrocytes appear to actively contribute to the neuroprotective and pro-cognitive effects of ketone therapies, particularly in the context of aging and disease. However, significant gaps still remain, concerning the stage when ketone therapy should be initiated, the underlying mechanisms, regional specificity, and long-term consequences. Future research focused on astrocyte heterogeneity, activation of intracellular pathways, and metabolic and transcriptional reprogramming will enable the translational potential of astrocyte-targeted ketone therapies for neurological disorders.</p>","PeriodicalId":49623,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in the Neurosciences","volume":" ","pages":"189-216"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2025-12-09","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145716161","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Danil Peregud, Valeria Baronets, Olga Pavlova, Konstantin Pavlov
{"title":"<i>BDNF</i> gene polymorphisms and substance use disorders: a systematic review.","authors":"Danil Peregud, Valeria Baronets, Olga Pavlova, Konstantin Pavlov","doi":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0112","DOIUrl":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0112","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The development of substance use disorders (SUDs) is partly determined by genetic factors. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) underlies the neurobiological mechanisms of action of psychoactive substances (PASs) and development of SUDs, while genetic markers within the BDNF gene may be associated with a risk of SUDs and accompanied clinical manifestations. This is a systematic review of the relationships between single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the <i>BDNF</i> gene locus and various aspects of SUDs. We searched, appraised, and summarized the research evidence of these associations for the main pharmacological groups of PASs (tobacco, cannabis, alcohol, opioids, and stimulants). Most studies have focused on the functional Val66Met (rs6265) polymorphism. They demonstrated that the rs6265 Met (T) allele may be a protective factor for the development of SUDs. In addition to rs6265, other individual <i>BDNF</i>-related SNPs and the corresponding haplotypes were associated with the risk of the development of SUDs, their clinical manifestations, presence of comorbidity, and sensitivity to pharmacotherapy. The identified associations often depended on the studied population and were influenced by sex and ancestry. Established <i>BDNF</i>-related genetic markers or their combinations potentially may be used as objective diagnostic or prognostic criteria in clinical practice.</p>","PeriodicalId":49623,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in the Neurosciences","volume":" ","pages":"141-188"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2025-11-05","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145446352","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Ari Misael Martínez-Torres, Keyla Tamara Cerdán-Centeno, Crisalde Ramirez-Celis, Suly Peniche-Zamudio, Teresa de Jesús Durán-González, Camila Roa-Gutierrez, Cynthia Navarro-Mabarak, Julio Morán
{"title":"Implications of the mitochondrial CB1 receptor in the brain: from mitochondrial dysfunction to neuroprotection.","authors":"Ari Misael Martínez-Torres, Keyla Tamara Cerdán-Centeno, Crisalde Ramirez-Celis, Suly Peniche-Zamudio, Teresa de Jesús Durán-González, Camila Roa-Gutierrez, Cynthia Navarro-Mabarak, Julio Morán","doi":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0086","DOIUrl":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0086","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Mitochondrial activity is essential for brain function, as ATP produced by mitochondria is crucial for neuronal activity, growth, and regeneration. Bioenergetic failure is a hallmark in neurodegenerative and acquired brain diseases and converts the mitochondria into a molecular target to prevent neuronal death. Mitochondrial regulation can play a crucial role in energetic balance, calcium homeostasis, and neuronal signaling. Different molecules have been implicated in the regulation of this organelle, and recently, the endocannabinoid system (ECS) became a relevant mitochondrial regulator through the mitochondrial CB1 receptor (mtCB1R). The recent discovery of this receptor and its participation in mitochondrial homeostasis opens new insights about its role in neuronal plasticity and neurodegeneration. This review briefly describes the endocannabinoid system, with a major focus on mtCB1R and its role in mitochondrial homeostasis, learning, memory, and neuronal death. Relevant aspects of the role of mtCB1R in the brain in health and diseases remain unclear; however, exploring this topic holds promising implications in the comprehension of mitochondrial degeneration and future therapeutic advantages.</p>","PeriodicalId":49623,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in the Neurosciences","volume":" ","pages":"93-112"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2025-10-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145338009","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
Victoria I Zhdankina, Elizaveta S Perepelitsa, Anna V Blagova, Yulia K Komleva, Tatyana I Baranich, Alla B Salmina
{"title":"The involvement of HIF-1α-dependent paracrine factors in Alzheimer's disease.","authors":"Victoria I Zhdankina, Elizaveta S Perepelitsa, Anna V Blagova, Yulia K Komleva, Tatyana I Baranich, Alla B Salmina","doi":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0102","DOIUrl":"10.1515/revneuro-2025-0102","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Activated HIF-1α is a key regulator of various paracrine factors that influence vascular tone, angiogenesis, and cell survival, including endothelin-1, VEGF, Ang-2, erythropoietin, and SDF-1/CXCL12. These factors not only play established roles in vascular biology but are also critical in modulating neurogenesis. The intricate relationship between the brain's vascular system and its neurogenic niches underscores the importance of HIF-1 in facilitating their interactions. Angiogenesis and proper vessel perfusion are vital for the maintenance and proliferation of neural progenitor cells, especially in the context of neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD). In AD, impaired angiogenesis can negatively impact neurogenesis, exacerbating cognitive decline. Recent transcriptomic and proteomic studies have revealed significant upregulation of HIF-1α expression in AD patients, indicating its potential involvement in the pathophysiology of this disease. This review aims to elucidate the role of HIF-1α and related hypoxia-inducible factors in AD, focusing on their diagnostic and therapeutic implications. We specifically examine two critical neurogenic niches in the adult brain: the subventricular zone (SVZ) and the subgranular zone (SGZ). Understanding how HIF-1α affects neurogenesis in these regions may offer novel insights into potential therapeutic strategies for AD, highlighting the need for further research into the intersection of hypoxia, angiogenesis, and neurogenesis in the context of neurodegeneration. By exploring these connections, we hope to contribute to a better understanding of AD pathophysiology and identify new avenues for intervention.</p>","PeriodicalId":49623,"journal":{"name":"Reviews in the Neurosciences","volume":" ","pages":"61-75"},"PeriodicalIF":4.1,"publicationDate":"2025-10-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145233904","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":3,"RegionCategory":"医学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}