Journal of Safety Research最新文献

{"title":"Underpinning the impact of in-vehicle distractions on driving performance in Australia","authors":"Johra Kayeser Fatima ,&nbsp;Somayeh Bahmannia ,&nbsp;Jeroen J.A. van Boxtel ,&nbsp;Ram Subramanian","doi":"10.1016/j.jsr.2025.12.006","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsr.2025.12.006","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Introduction:</em> Give the significant and diverse impact of in-vehicle distractions on road crashes, this study examines the comparative impact of four inside-vehicle distractions (auditory, visual, behavioral/manual and cognitive) on driving performance. <em>Method</em>: A lab-based driving simulator study was conducted with Australian drivers (n = 103) to examine the impact of four types of distractions on driving performance. <em>Results</em>: Simulator-based study results confirmed that behavioral/manual and auditory distractions were the largest inside-vehicle distractions affecting driving performance adversely. <em>Practical Applications</em>: The study’s findings offer valuable insights for developing safe driving awareness campaigns, particularly by addressing auditory and behavioral distractions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48224,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Safety Research","volume":"96 ","pages":"Pages 131-137"},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145796667","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Factors associated with alcohol-impaired driver crash deaths in the United States, 2018–2022","authors":"Angela H. Eichelberger","doi":"10.1016/j.jsr.2025.12.011","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsr.2025.12.011","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Introduction:</em> In the United States, the number of passenger vehicle drivers killed in crashes with blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) at or above 0.08% increased from 4,791 in 2019 to 5,540 in 2020 and remained elevated at 6,042 in 2022. This paper examines changes in alcohol policies, mental health factors, and law enforcement employment during 2018–2022 and their associations with alcohol-impaired driver deaths. <em>Method:</em> Panel regressions compared high-BAC (≥0.08%) driver deaths across states and months for all ages and ages 16–20. Predictors included state-level alcohol policy indicators (to-go and home-delivery), adult mental health indicators (past-year major depressive episodes and past-year suicide plans), and law enforcement employment levels. COVID-19 closures, vehicle miles traveled, and other variables were included as statistical controls. <em>Results:</em> From 2018 to 2022, the number of states permitting to-go or home-delivery alcohol purchases from bars or restaurants doubled, law enforcement employment declined, and mental health indicators increased. In a panel regression with all ages of drivers, alcohol home delivery policies, major depressive episodes, and suicide plans were associated with significantly more high-BAC driver deaths, whereas alcohol to-go policies and law enforcement employment were associated with significantly fewer high-BAC driver deaths. Only two predictors (law enforcement employment and suicide plans) were significant predictors of high-BAC driver deaths among ages 16–20. <em>Conclusions:</em> Although the number of states permitting home-delivery and to-go alcohol increased, the associations with driver deaths were not consistent. Law enforcement employment and suicidality were two independent factors consistently associated with alcohol-impaired driver deaths. As law enforcement employment levels fell and as suicidality increased, alcohol-impaired driver deaths rose. <em>Practical Applications:</em> The relationship between mental health factors and alcohol-impaired driving suggests that a broader public health focus that incorporates prevention and treatment services could play a role in helping to reverse the alcohol-impaired driving trend.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48224,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Safety Research","volume":"96 ","pages":"Pages 174-180"},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145840143","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A machine learning-supported path analysis to uncover the behavioral pathways in pedestrian-involved traffic crashes","authors":"Jiayi Kong ,&nbsp;Ningzhe Xu ,&nbsp;Jun Liu ,&nbsp;Steven Jones","doi":"10.1016/j.jsr.2026.01.015","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsr.2026.01.015","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Introduction</em>: Pedestrians are vulnerable road users, and many studies have examined the characteristics of crashes involving pedestrians, aiming to address the factors contributing to pedestrian injuries and fatalities in traffic crashes. Unlike existing studies that directly link factors to pedestrian injuries, this study aims to uncover the behavioral pathways in traffic crashes involving pedestrians. It is based on the assumption that a pedestrian’s pre-crash behavior is the outcome of multiple contributing factors, including pedestrian demographics, traffic conditions, and environmental characteristics; and also, a pedestrian’s risky behaviors, such as failing to yield or dash/dart-out, can lead to severe injuries in traffic crashes. Therefore, a behavioral pathway can be formed between the contributing factors, pedestrian pre-crash behaviors, and pedestrian injury outcomes in traffic crashes. <em>Method</em>: Using data on pedestrian-involved crashes from 2018 to 2022 in North Carolina, this study employs a path analysis framework integrated with interpretable machine learning models to examine the behavioral pathways in pedestrian-involved crashes. The path analysis allows the identification of various factors that directly contribute to injury severity and those that indirectly contribute to pedestrian injuries through their pre-crash behaviors. <em>Results</em>: The results indicate that several factors are directly associated with pedestrian injury severities, including pedestrian demographics, pre-crash behaviors, vehicle features, driver’s intoxication, and road environment. Further, some factors serve as predictors of pedestrians’ pre-crash behaviors, indirectly contributing to their injury severity. <em>Practical applications</em>: This study provides insights into the behavioral pathways leading to pedestrian injuries, informing educational campaigns, infrastructure improvements, and enforcement strategies to reduce pedestrian injuries and fatalities.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48224,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Safety Research","volume":"96 ","pages":"Pages 343-356"},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146077162","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"The missing piece in deterring phone use while driving: Police perspectives after legislative and penalty changes","authors":"Verity Truelove ,&nbsp;Laura Mills ,&nbsp;Oscar Oviedo-Trespalacios","doi":"10.1016/j.jsr.2026.01.007","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsr.2026.01.007","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Objective:</em> Engagement in illegal phone use while driving continues to increase. To obtain a more in depth understanding of the deterrent impact of the current legal countermeasures for this behavior, this study conducted a qualitative investigation from those on the frontline of enforcement: police officers. <em>Method:</em> A total of 26 police officers from Queensland, Australia, completed interviews on how they view the deterrent impact of the current phone use while driving legislation, penalties, and their enforcement, using classical deterrence theory as a framework. Police officers were interviewed during and after changes to the phone use while driving legislation and penalty in their jurisdiction. A reflexive thematic analysis was conducted to analyze the data and themes were created based on the constructs within classical deterrence theory: certainty of apprehension, severity of punishment, and swiftness of punishment. <em>Results:</em> The findings demonstrate the factors that contribute to both strengthening and weakening the legal deterrent effect for phone use while driving from a police perspective and have important theoretical and practical implications. For example, it is suggested that phone use while driving legislation that does not differentiate the types of phone behavior can make enforcement of this offense easier, yet a higher penalty may result in drivers concealing their phones more.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48224,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Safety Research","volume":"96 ","pages":"Pages 268-276"},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146037068","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Gait instability in community-dwelling older fallers: How visual search behaviors reveal hidden fall risk","authors":"Toby C.T. Mak ,&nbsp;Thomson W.L. Wong ,&nbsp;Debbie C.L. Chan ,&nbsp;Duo W.C. Wong ,&nbsp;Shamay S.M. Ng","doi":"10.1016/j.jsr.2026.01.001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsr.2026.01.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Introduction</em>: Falls during walking contribute significantly to injuries in older adults, with gait instability being a key risk factor. While visual search behaviors are essential for safe navigation, their relationship to instability remains unclear. This study compared visual search behaviors during walking between community-dwelling older adults with and without a fall history and examined their association with gait instability. <em>Methods:</em> Seventy-four older adults (mean age: 70.7 ± 3.9 years; 37 fallers, 37 non-fallers) walked at a self-selected pace along an 8-m level-ground walkway for five trials. Gait stability was assessed by variability of spatial and temporal gait parameters, where greater variability reflects reduced stability. Visual search behaviors were assessed by the percentage of total fixations and the percentage of total fixation duration directed towards the ground (floor area of the walkway), the destination (end-point of the walkway), and random areas (non-task-relevant areas). <em>Results:</em> No significant differences in visual search behaviors were observed between groups. In fallers, greater variability of stride time was associated with greater percentages of the number of fixations on the ground (ρ = 0.348, p = 0.043), while greater variability of step width was associated with fewer percentages of the number of fixations (ρ = -0.464, p = 0.006) and fixation duration on the destination (ρ = -0.452, p = 0.007). These associations were not apparent in non-fallers. <em>Conclusions:</em> Despite similar visual search behaviors between older fallers and non-fallers, fallers exhibited unique associations between reduced visual scanning towards the destination and lateral instability (i.e., increased variability of step width) during walking—an effective predictor of falls. This suggests maladaptive visuomotor behaviors and compromised gait stability may be interrelated, collectively increasing fall injury risk in older fallers. <em>Practical Applications:</em> The observed associations suggest that visuomotor training could be explored in fall prevention programs to improve gait safety in older fallers. Future studies should investigate causality and evaluate efficacy in hazard-rich environments.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48224,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Safety Research","volume":"96 ","pages":"Pages 223-228"},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145924633","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Improving our understanding of contributing factors in California level 4 autonomous vehicle crashes through latent class analysis and machine learning-SHAP interpretations","authors":"Jiacheng Wang ,&nbsp;Corey D. Harper ,&nbsp;Chris Hendrickson","doi":"10.1016/j.jsr.2025.11.007","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsr.2025.11.007","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Introduction</em>: Autonomous vehicles (AVs) could lower crash frequency and injury severity by reducing the number of crashes caused by human-error. Using the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration Standing General Order database—we revisit California AV crashes to determine: (i) which factors drive injuries; (ii) whether their effects are uniform or scenario-dependent; and (iii) how pairs of factors interact to raise or lower injury risk. <em>Method:</em> We examined 947 level 4 AV crashes. Latent class analysis grouped crashes into homogeneous scenarios. Within each scenario we trained a machine learning classifier, balanced with random oversampling, to predict injury versus no-injury outcomes. Using SHapley Additive exPlanations (SHAP) the main effects of different variables and their pairwise interaction effects were analyzed. <em>Results:</em> We identified three latent crash profiles: low-speed daytime, moderate-speed across different times, and low-speed nighttime. Rear-end collisions and turning maneuvers are positively correlated with injury outcome in both low speed profiles and have context-dependent impact in the moderate-speed profile. Non-motorist crashes carry elevated injury risk across all classes, with the highest SHAP values observed in the moderate-speed profile. Adverse weather increases injury likelihood in the low-speed daytime profile on streets, while wet or icy roadway surfaces raise injury likelihood in the moderate-speed crash profile. Time-of-day interaction effects are observed across several scenarios. <em>Conclusions:</em> Our LCA–Machine Learning–SHAP framework reveals key factors and interaction effects on level 4 AV crash injuries in an interpretable way. Further insights into contributing factors can be assessed as larger datasets become available. <em>Practical Applications:</em> Improving predictive driving algorithms so that AVs could better anticipate changes in vehicle speed, acceleration, and braking, limiting speeds in areas with high pedestrian activity, deploying friction-aware controls to improve traction on non-dry roads, and enhancing weather/visibility classification for AVs to automatically adjust speed and headway in adverse weather conditions.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48224,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Safety Research","volume":"96 ","pages":"Pages 19-37"},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145580374","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Crossing in the dark: Investigating the effect of vehicle kinematics and eHMI on older pedestrians’ crossing behavior in a virtual reality experiment","authors":"Yee Mun Lee,&nbsp;Ruth Madigan,&nbsp;Yueyang Wang,&nbsp;Jorge Garcia,&nbsp;Hao Qin,&nbsp;Aravinda Srinivasan,&nbsp;Gustav Markkula,&nbsp;Natasha Merat","doi":"10.1016/j.jsr.2026.01.012","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsr.2026.01.012","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Introduction:</em> There has been a surge in interest in evaluating new forms of communication for Automated Vehicles (AVs), namely external human–machine interfaces (eHMIs). However, much of the research has focused on younger pedestrians’ crossing behavior and experience while interacting with AVs and in daytime conditions with optimum visibility. Given that the AVs will interact with pedestrians of all ages, and at all times, there are still key knowledge gaps that need to be addressed. <em>Method:</em> Using a cave-based pedestrian lab, this study investigated the effect of AV kinematics (i.e., deceleration, speed, time gaps) and eHMI (a Slow Pulsing Light Band) on the crossing behavior of younger adult pedestrians (18–35 years old) and older pedestrians (64–77 years old), in both daytime and nighttime virtual environments. <em>Results:</em> Results showed that older pedestrians adopted a different crossing strategy than younger pedestrians. If they decided to cross in the non-deceleration trials, they compensated for their longer crossing duration by initiating their crossing earlier than younger pedestrians. However, if they decided to wait until the deceleration was more prominent, they waited longer than the younger pedestrians. Generally, pedestrians reported feeling less safe and behaved more cautiously during nighttime crossings (i.e., less likely to cross, longer crossing initiation time (CIT) when there was no eHMI). eHMI decreased CIT for both age groups but was interpreted and used differently between younger and older pedestrians. Finally, an eHMI failure trial mainly affected younger pedestrians. <em>Conclusions and practical applications:</em> This knowledge should inform the design of effective communication for AVs for younger and older pedestrians.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48224,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Safety Research","volume":"96 ","pages":"Pages 315-328"},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146077161","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Time series analysis of resampled red-light violations to understand drivers’ adaptation to extended yellow intervals","authors":"Pouya Jalali Khalilabadi ,&nbsp;Henrick Haule ,&nbsp;Yao-Jan Wu","doi":"10.1016/j.jsr.2025.11.009","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsr.2025.11.009","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Introduction:</em> Red-light running (RLR) poses significant safety risks at signalized intersections, often leading to severe crashes. Increasing yellow intervals has been proposed as a countermeasure for RLR violations. Despite the immediate effectiveness of increasing yellow intervals in reducing RLR violations, concerns remain regarding potential driver adaptation over time. This study aimed to evaluate the long-term effectiveness of increased yellow intervals on driver compliance using RLR events on through and left-turn movements. <em>Method:</em> The data were collected from three intersections in the Phoenix metropolitan area for 81 and 496 days (about one and a half years) before and after increasing the through and left-turn yellow intervals. An Interrupted Time Series Analysis (ITSA) and Block Bootstrap Resampling were applied to determine the significance of the intervention and the impact of the intervention through time. <em>Results:</em> The results showed that increasing the yellow intervals led to a significant and sustained reduction in RLR violations for both through and left-turn movements across all treatment sites. Importantly, ITSA results indicated no evidence of driver adaptation, reinforcing the long-term effectiveness of increasing yellow intervals on RLR. This research also shows the impact of movement types and site-specific characteristics, including traffic volume and intersection layout, on the effectiveness of signal timing adjustments for safety improvements. <em>Practical applications:</em> Understanding the drivers’ adaptation to the changes in signal timing could assist agencies when considering using longer yellow intervals to address chronic red light running violations and defining the allowable period before readjustment of signal timing plans for safety purposes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48224,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Safety Research","volume":"96 ","pages":"Pages 38-54"},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145625328","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Shedding light on safety: Comparing the crash likelihood and speed at impact of pedestrian crash avoidance systems across day and night conditions","authors":"Zeinab Bayati,&nbsp;Asad J. Khattak","doi":"10.1016/j.jsr.2025.12.001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsr.2025.12.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Introduction:<!--> </em>Pedestrians remain highly vulnerable in transportation systems, with fatal crash rates rising. Approximately 75% of fatal pedestrian crashes occur in darker conditions, motivating this study to examine the role of technology improvements in both nighttime and daytime conditions. <em>Method:<!--> </em>This study evaluates the effectiveness of Pedestrian Automatic Emergency Braking (P-AEB) systems available on 44 vehicles in preventing crashes across different lighting conditions, using datasets from the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety. <em>Results:<!--> </em>In controlled tests conducted on 2021- 2024 vehicle models, 22% resulted in crashes (27.6% at nighttime and 12.0% during daytime), with darker conditions and higher test speeds (60 km/h) contributing to increased crash occurrence and impact speeds. Notably, crash speeds at night were distributed across a broader range of values, indicating greater variability compared to daytime speeds. The results of a random-effects Heckman sample selection showed that low beam lighting increased the likelihood of crashes by up to 12% relative to daytime conditions for the tests. <em>Conclusions &amp; Practical Applications:<!--> </em>This analysis shows that longer Time-to-Collision (TTC) at AEB activation (earlier braking) reduce crash occurrence by up to 34%. However, nighttime tests showed shorter TTC at AEB activation than daytime tests, limiting deceleration and potentially worsening outcomes. Additionally, although nighttime driving typically offers less visibility than daytime driving, the appropriate use of high beams may enhance visibility (in these test situations) and safety. These findings highlight the need to improve P-AEB system performance in low-light conditions. By integrating radar and camera technologies, these systems can detect potential hazards earlier, enabling the timely activation of brakes and allowing for more aggressive braking when necessary. Such improvements are crucial for enhancing safety standards in P-AEB systems, enabling them to protect pedestrians more effectively.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48224,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Safety Research","volume":"96 ","pages":"Pages 120-130"},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145796665","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A qualitative study on young drivers’ experiences with, and perceptions of others’ engagement in, and approval of, next day drink driving","authors":"Michelle Nicolls,&nbsp;Lisa Buckley","doi":"10.1016/j.jsr.2025.12.003","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jsr.2025.12.003","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Introduction:</em> A less understood component of drink driving is next day drink driving (ND-DD), which refers to driving the following morning after drinking while potentially above the legal limit. Evidence suggests young drivers are engaging in ND-DD more frequently than drink driving. However, young drivers’ experiences of ND-DD remain unclear. As proposed by Social Norm Theory, believing others engage in, or approve of, a behavior can result in an individuals’ own engagement in the same behavior. Accordingly, this qualitative study aimed to explore young drivers’ experiences with, and perceptions of others’ engagement in, and approval of, ND-DD. <em>Method:</em> Thirty-one young drivers (18–24 years) residing in Queensland, Australia, participated in a one-on-one interview. Template analysis was employed to data. Four themes were recognized: (1) Drink driving (and ND-DD) experiences; (2) “People always drink drive:” Descriptive norms; (3) <strong>“</strong>More approved of than drink driving:” Contradictions of ND-DD and drink driving; and (4) Location matters. <em>Results:</em> Young drivers described more experiences of ND-DD than drink driving (T1). Drink driving and ND-DD were described as occurring frequently by others (T2). In addition, drink driving was perceived to be disapproved by others, but ND-DD was perceived as more approved by others (T3). Many described that drink driving and ND-DD may occur more frequently in non-metropolitan locations compared to metropolitan locations (T4). <em>Conclusions:</em> Young drivers described experiences of ND-DD and believed others often engage in, and approve of, the behavior. These findings suggest ND-DD may be a concern for road safety, highlighting further understanding is warranted into this risky and potentially illegal driving behavior. <em>Practical Applications:</em> Drink driving research should consider expanding to ND-DD, which will contribute to understanding this behavior. In addition, the role of social norms on ND-DD warrants further investigation, which may guide the development of norm-based messages to reduce the behavior.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":48224,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Safety Research","volume":"96 ","pages":"Pages 112-119"},"PeriodicalIF":4.4,"publicationDate":"2026-02-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"145796666","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":2,"RegionCategory":"工程技术","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}