AIMS Microbiology最新文献

{"title":"Genomic characterization of a multidrug-resistant uropathogenic <i>Escherichia coli</i> and evaluation of <i>Echeveria</i> plant extracts as antibacterials.","authors":"Ana M Castañeda-Meléndrez, José A Magaña-Lizárraga, Marcela Martínez-Valenzuela, Aldo F Clemente-Soto, Patricia C García-Cervantes, Francisco Delgado-Vargas, Rodolfo Bernal-Reynaga","doi":"10.3934/microbiol.2024003","DOIUrl":"10.3934/microbiol.2024003","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Uropathogenic <i>Escherichia coli</i> (UPEC) is the most common bacterial agent associated with urinary tract infections, threatening public health systems with elevated medical costs and high morbidity rates. The successful establishment of the infection is associated with virulence factors encoded in its genome, in addition to antibacterial resistance genes, which could limit the treatment and resolution of the infection. In this sense, plant extracts from the genus <i>Echeveria</i> have traditionally been used to treat diverse infectious diseases. However, little is known about the effects of these extracts on bacteria and their potential mechanisms of action. This study aims to sequence a multidrug-resistant UPEC isolate (UTI-U7) and assess the multilocus sequence typing (MLST), virulence factors, antimicrobial resistance profile, genes, serotype, and plasmid content. Antimicrobial susceptibility profiling was performed using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion. The antibacterial and anti-adherent effects of the methanol extracts (ME) of <i>Echeveria</i> (<i>E. craigiana</i>, <i>E. kimnachii</i>, and <i>E. subrigida</i>) against UTI-U7 were determined. The isolate was characterized as an O25:H4-B2-ST2279-CH40 subclone and had resistant determinants to aminoglycosides, β-lactams, fluoroquinolones/quinolones, amphenicols, and tetracyclines, which matched with the antimicrobial resistance profile. The virulence genes identified encode adherence factors, iron uptake, protectins/serum resistance, and toxins. Identified plasmids belonged to the IncF group (IncFIA, IncFIB, and IncFII), alongside several prophage-like elements. After an extensive genome analysis that confirmed the pathogenic status of UTI-U7 isolate, <i>Echeveria</i> extracts were tested to determine their antibacterial effects; as an extract, <i>E. subrigida</i> (MIC, 5 mg/mL) displayed the best inhibitory effect. However, the adherence between UTI-U7 and HeLa cells was unaffected by the ME of the <i>E. subrigida</i> extract.</p>","PeriodicalId":46108,"journal":{"name":"AIMS Microbiology","volume":"10 1","pages":"41-61"},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2024-01-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10955171/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140207881","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Broiler farming practices using new or re-used bedding, inclusive of free-range, have no impact on <i>Campylobacter</i> levels, species diversity, <i>Campylobacter</i> community profiles and <i>Campylobacter</i> bacteriophages.","authors":"Helene Nalini Chinivasagam, Wiyada Estella, Damien Finn, David G Mayer, Hugh Rodrigues, Ibrahim Diallo","doi":"10.3934/microbiol.2024002","DOIUrl":"10.3934/microbiol.2024002","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>A multi-stage option to address food-safety can be produced by a clearer understanding of <i>Campylobacter</i>'s persistence through the broiler production chain, its environmental niche and its interaction with bacteriophages. This study addressed <i>Campylobacter</i> levels, species, genotype, bacteriophage composition/ levels in caeca, litter, soil and carcasses across commercial broiler farming practices to inform on-farm management, including interventions. Broilers were sequentially collected as per company slaughter schedules over two-years from 17 farms, which represented four commercially adopted farming practices, prior to the final bird removal (days 39-53). The practices were conventional full clean-out, conventional litter re-use, free-range-full cleanout and free-range-litter re-use. Caeca, litter and soil collected on-farm, and representative carcases collected at the processing plant, were tested for <i>Campylobacter</i> levels, species dominance and <i>Campylobacter</i> bacteriophages. General community profiling via denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis of the <i>flaA</i> gene was used to establish the population relationships between various farming practices on representative <i>Campylobacter</i> isolates. The farming practice choices did not influence the high caeca <i>Campylobacter</i> levels (log 7.5 to log 8.5 CFU/g), the carcass levels (log 2.5 to log 3.2 CFU/carcass), the <i>C. jejuni</i>/<i>C. coli</i> dominance and the on-farm bacteriophage presence/levels. A principal coordinate analysis of the <i>flaA</i> distribution for farm and litter practices showed strong separation but no obvious farming practice related grouping of <i>Campylobacter</i>. Bacteriophages originated from select farms, were not practice-dependent, and were detected in the environment (litter) only if present in the birds (caeca). This multifaceted study showed no influence of farming practices on on-farm <i>Campylobacter</i> dynamics. The significance of this study means that a unified on-farm risk-management could be adopted irrespective of commercial practice choices to collectively address caeca <i>Campylobacter</i> levels, as well as the potential to include <i>Campylobacter</i> bacteriophage biocontrol. The impact of this study means that there are no constraints in re-using bedding or adopting free-range farming, thus contributing to environmentally sustainable (re-use) and emerging (free-range) broiler farming choices.</p>","PeriodicalId":46108,"journal":{"name":"AIMS Microbiology","volume":"10 1","pages":"12-40"},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2024-01-16","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10955168/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140207878","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Seroprevalence of brucellosis among animal handlers in West Bengal, India: an occupational health study.","authors":"Dolanchampa Modak, Silpak Biswas, Agnibho Mondal, Malabika Biswas, Maria Teresa Mascellino, Banya Chakraborty, Simmi Tiwari, Ajit Dadaji Shewale, Tushar Nale, Rupali Dey","doi":"10.3934/microbiol.2024001","DOIUrl":"10.3934/microbiol.2024001","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Brucellosis is a highly contagious zoonotic disease and a major human health problem worldwide. Due to its ways of transmission, direct or indirect contact with infected animals or their contaminated biological products, the disease exhibits strong occupational association with animal handlers comprising a significant population at risk. This study was undertaken to estimate the seroprevalence of brucellosis in animal handlers and to understand the epidemiological and serological aspects of the same. The animal handlers from the state of West Bengal, India were included in this study. It was a prospective and observational cohort study from November 2021 to March 2022. A total of 669 sera samples were collected from animal handlers and tested using various serological tests for <i>Brucella</i> antibodies. All serum samples were tested using the Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT), standard tube agglutination test (STAT), and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). 106 (15.8%) patients were diagnosed with brucellosis among the total number of patients tested. Most of the patients affected with brucellosis belonged to the age group 51-60 years (23.5%). The seropositivity rate in male animal handlers was higher than female animal handlers in this study. More studies are needed to understand the occupational association of this disease. Awareness programs, safe livestock practices, and prevention of the disease by timely diagnosis must be implemented in order to control human brucellosis.</p>","PeriodicalId":46108,"journal":{"name":"AIMS Microbiology","volume":"10 1","pages":"1-11"},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2024-01-02","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10955173/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"140207883","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Type I CRISPR-Cas-mediated microbial gene editing and regulation.","authors":"Zeling Xu, Shuzhen Chen, Weiyan Wu, Yongqi Wen, Huiluo Cao","doi":"10.3934/microbiol.2023040","DOIUrl":"10.3934/microbiol.2023040","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>There are six major types of CRISPR-Cas systems that provide adaptive immunity in bacteria and archaea against invasive genetic elements. The discovery of CRISPR-Cas systems has revolutionized the field of genetics in many organisms. In the past few years, exploitations of the most abundant class 1 type I CRISPR-Cas systems have revealed their great potential and distinct advantages to achieve gene editing and regulation in diverse microorganisms in spite of their complicated structures. The widespread and diversified type I CRISPR-Cas systems are becoming increasingly attractive for the development of new biotechnological tools, especially in genetically recalcitrant microbial strains. In this review article, we comprehensively summarize recent advancements in microbial gene editing and regulation by utilizing type I CRISPR-Cas systems. Importantly, to expand the microbial host range of type I CRISPR-Cas-based applications, these structurally complicated systems have been improved as transferable gene-editing tools with efficient delivery methods for stable expression of CRISPR-Cas elements, as well as convenient gene-regulation tools with the prevention of DNA cleavage by obviating deletion or mutation of the Cas3 nuclease. We envision that type I CRISPR-Cas systems will largely expand the biotechnological toolbox for microbes with medical, environmental and industrial importance.</p>","PeriodicalId":46108,"journal":{"name":"AIMS Microbiology","volume":"9 4","pages":"780-800"},"PeriodicalIF":2.7,"publicationDate":"2023-12-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10758571/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139088964","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Activation of cryptic biosynthetic gene clusters by fungal artificial chromosomes to produce novel secondary metabolites.","authors":"Chengcang C Wu, Andrea A Stierle, Donald B Stierle, Hongyu Chen, Michael Swyers, Timothy Decker, Emili Borkowski, Peter Korajczyk, Rosa Ye, Niel Mondava","doi":"10.3934/microbiol.2023039","DOIUrl":"10.3934/microbiol.2023039","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>In 2017, we reported the discovery of Berkeleylactone A (BPLA), a novel, potent antibiotic produced exclusively in co-culture by two extremophilic fungi, <i>Penicillium fuscum</i> and <i>P. camembertii/clavigerum</i>, which were isolated from the Berkeley Pit, an acid mine waste lake, in Butte, Montana. Neither fungus synthesized BPLA when grown in axenic culture. Recent studies suggest that secondary metabolites (SMs) are often synthesized by enzymes encoded by co-localized genes that form \"biosynthetic gene clusters\" (BGCs), which might remain <i>silent</i> (inactive) under various fermentation conditions. Fungi may also harbor cryptic BGCs that are not associated with previously characterized molecules. We turned to the tools of Fungal Artificial Chromosomes (FAC)-Next-Gen-Sequencing (NGS) to understand how co-culture activated cryptic biosynthesis of BPLA and several related berkeleylactones and to further investigate the true biosynthetic potential of these two fungi. FAC-NGS enables the capture of BGCs as individual FACs for heterologous expression in a modified strain of <i>Aspergillus nidulans</i> (heterologous host, FAC-<i>An</i>HH). With this methodology, we created ten BGC-FACs that yielded fourteen different SMs, including strobilurin, which was previously isolated exclusively from basidiomycetes. Eleven of these compounds were not detected in the extracts of the FAC-<i>An</i>HH. Of this discrete set, only the novel compound citreohybriddional had been isolated from either <i>Penicillium</i> sp. before and only at very low yield. We propose that through heterologous expression, FACs activated these silent BGCs, resulting in the synthesis of new natural products (NPs) with yields as high as 50%-60% of the crude organic extracts.</p>","PeriodicalId":46108,"journal":{"name":"AIMS Microbiology","volume":"9 4","pages":"757-779"},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2023-12-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10758572/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"139088931","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Cholesterol dependent cytolysins and the brain: Revealing a potential therapeutic avenue for bacterial meningitis.","authors":"Tjokorda Istri Pramitasuri, Ni Made Susilawathi, Ni Made Adi Tarini, Aa Raka Sudewi, Matthew C Evans","doi":"10.3934/microbiol.2023033","DOIUrl":"10.3934/microbiol.2023033","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Bacterial meningitis is a catastrophic nervous system disorder with high mortality and wide range of morbidities. Some of the meningitis-causing bacteria occupy cholesterol dependent cytolysins (CDCs) to increase their pathogenicity and arrange immune-evasion strategy. Studies have observed that the relationship between CDCs and pathogenicity in these meningitides is complex and involves interactions between CDC, blood-brain barrier (BBB), glial cells and neurons. In BBB, these CDCs acts on capillary endothelium, tight junction (TJ) proteins and neurovascular unit (NVU). CDCs also observed to elicit intriguing effects on brain inflammation which involves microglia and astrocyte activations, along with neuronal damage as the end-point of pathological pathways in bacterial meningitis. As some studies mentioned potential advantage of CDC-targeted therapeutic mechanisms to combat CNS infections, it might be a fruitful avenue to deepen our understanding of CDC as a candidate for adjuvant therapy to combat bacterial meningitis.</p>","PeriodicalId":46108,"journal":{"name":"AIMS Microbiology","volume":"1 1","pages":"647-667"},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2023-08-21","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10758573/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"70221507","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"<i>P. aeruginosa</i> interactions with other microbes in biofilms during co-infection.","authors":"Manuela Oliveira, Eva Cunha, Luís Tavares, Isa Serrano","doi":"10.3934/microbiol.2023032","DOIUrl":"10.3934/microbiol.2023032","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>This review addresses the topic of biofilms, including their development and the interaction between different counterparts. There is evidence that various diseases, such as cystic fibrosis, otitis media, diabetic foot wound infections, and certain cancers, are promoted and aggravated by the presence of polymicrobial biofilms. Biofilms are composed by heterogeneous communities of microorganisms protected by a matrix of polysaccharides. The different types of interactions between microorganisms gives rise to an increased resistance to antimicrobials and to the host's defense mechanisms, with the consequent worsening of disease symptoms. Therefore, infections caused by polymicrobial biofilms affecting different human organs and systems will be discussed, as well as the role of the interactions between the gram-negative bacteria <i>Pseudomonas aeruginosa</i>, which is at the base of major polymicrobial infections, and other bacteria, fungi, and viruses in the establishment of human infections and diseases. Considering that polymicrobial biofilms are key to bacterial pathogenicity, it is fundamental to evaluate which microbes are involved in a certain disease to convey an appropriate and efficacious antimicrobial therapy.</p>","PeriodicalId":46108,"journal":{"name":"AIMS Microbiology","volume":"1 1","pages":"612-646"},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2023-08-10","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10758579/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"70221393","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Molecular and biotechnological characteristics of proteolytic activity from <i>Streptococcus thermophilus</i> as a proteolytic lactic acid bacteria to enhance protein-derived bioactive peptides.","authors":"Srisan Phupaboon, Farah J Hashim, Parichat Phumkhachorn, Pongsak Rattanachaikunsopon","doi":"10.3934/microbiol.2023031","DOIUrl":"10.3934/microbiol.2023031","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The demand for healthy food items with a high nutrient value of bioavailability and bioaccessibility has created a need for continuous development of technology and food ingredients like bioactive peptides. This study aimed to investigate seven proteolytic lactic acid bacteria (PLABs) isolated from the <i>plaa-som</i> (fermented fish) sample originated from silver BARB species for production of proteolytic enzymes. Proteolytic enzymes produced by (PLABs) were used further to create potent bioactive peptides by hydrolyzing proteins throughout PLAB-probiotics enhancer. Protein derived-bioactive peptides was tested the proteolytic activity on different protein sources and examined bioactivities including antioxidative and antimicrobial effect for further use in functional foods. Results of screened-PLAB strains showed high proteolytic activity namely <i>Streptococcus thermophilus</i> strains (KKUPA22 and KKUPK13). These strains have proteolytic system consisting of extracellular and cell-bound enzymes that used for degrading protein in fish flesh protein (FFP) and skim milk (SKM) broth media. Proteolytic activity of tested bacterial enzymes was estimated after incubation at 45, 37, and 50 °C. Furthermore, FFP hydrolysates were formed with various peptides and has small molecular weights (checked by SDS-PAGE) in the range of10.5 to 22 kDa), exhibiting strong activity. Data revealed that <i>S. thermophilus</i> strains (KKUPA22 and KKUPK13) had high antioxidant activity in term of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), 2,2-azinobis-(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonate) (ABTS) radical-scavenging inhibition, and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) reducing power capacity. Both strains (KKUPA22 and KKUPK13) of <i>S. thermophilus</i> have higher antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative bacteria than against Gram-positive bacteria. We have confirmed presence of proteolytic (<i>prt</i>) gene regions in <i>S. thermophilus</i> strains using specific primers via PCR amplification. Results showed highest homology (100%) with the <i>prt</i>S gene of <i>S. thermophillus</i> located on the cell envelope proteolytic enzymes (CEPEs) such as serine proteinase. Therefore, it concluded that the proteolytic system of tested PLAB strains able to generate bioactive peptides-derived proteins having active biological property, good mechanism of degradability, and bioaccessibility for further use in catalyzing protein of functional foods.</p>","PeriodicalId":46108,"journal":{"name":"AIMS Microbiology","volume":"1 1","pages":"591-611"},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2023-08-07","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10758578/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"70221279","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"An update on lateral flow immunoassay for the rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies.","authors":"Lucia Spicuzza,&nbsp;Davide Campagna,&nbsp;Chiara Di Maria,&nbsp;Enrico Sciacca,&nbsp;Salvatore Mancuso,&nbsp;Carlo Vancheri,&nbsp;Gianluca Sambataro","doi":"10.3934/microbiol.2023020","DOIUrl":"10.3934/microbiol.2023020","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>Over the last three years, after the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, an unprecedented number of novel diagnostic tests have been developed. Assays to evaluate the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 have been widely considered as part of the control strategy. The lateral flow immunoassay (LFIA), to detect both IgM and IgG against SARS-CoV-2, has been widely studied as a point-of-care (POC) test. Compared to laboratory tests, LFIAs are faster, cheaper and user-friendly, thus available also in areas with low economic resources. Soon after the onset of the pandemic, numerous kits for rapid antibody detection were put on the market with an emergency use authorization. However, since then, scientists have tried to better define the accuracy of these tests and their usefulness in different contexts. In fact, while during the first phase of the pandemic LFIAs for antibody detection were auxiliary to molecular tests for the diagnosis of COVID-19, successively these tests became a tool of seroprevalence surveillance to address infection control policies. When in 2021 a massive vaccination campaign was implemented worldwide, the interest in LFIA reemerged due to the need to establish the extent and the longevity of immunization in the vaccinated population and to establish priorities to guide health policies in low-income countries with limited access to vaccines. Here, we summarize the accuracy, the advantages and limits of LFIAs as POC tests for antibody detection, highlighting the efforts that have been made to improve this technology over the last few years.</p>","PeriodicalId":46108,"journal":{"name":"AIMS Microbiology","volume":"9 2","pages":"375-401"},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2023-04-13","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10113162/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9521127","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"SARS-CoV-2 infection and immune responses.","authors":"Rakhi Harne, Brittany Williams, Hazem F M Abdelal, Susan L Baldwin, Rhea N Coler","doi":"10.3934/microbiol.2023015","DOIUrl":"10.3934/microbiol.2023015","url":null,"abstract":"<p><p>The recent pandemic caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus continues to be an enormous global challenge faced by the healthcare sector. Availability of new vaccines and drugs targeting SARS-CoV-2 and sequelae of COVID-19 has given the world hope in ending the pandemic. However, the emergence of mutations in the SARS-CoV-2 viral genome every couple of months in different parts of world is a persistent danger to public health. Currently there is no single treatment to eradicate the risk of COVID-19. The widespread transmission of SARS-CoV-2 due to the Omicron variant necessitates continued work on the development and implementation of effective vaccines. Moreover, there is evidence that mutations in the receptor domain of the SARS-CoV-2 spike glycoprotein led to the decrease in current vaccine efficacy by escaping antibody recognition. Therefore, it is essential to actively identify the mechanisms by which SARS-CoV-2 evades the host immune system, study the long-lasting effects of COVID-19 and develop therapeutics targeting SARS-CoV-2 infections in humans and preclinical models. In this review, we describe the pathogenic mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 infection as well as the innate and adaptive host immune responses to infection. We address the ongoing need to develop effective vaccines that provide protection against different variants of SARS-CoV-2, as well as validated endpoint assays to evaluate the immunogenicity of vaccines in the pipeline, medications, anti-viral drug therapies and public health measures, that will be required to successfully end the COVID-19 pandemic.</p>","PeriodicalId":46108,"journal":{"name":"AIMS Microbiology","volume":"9 2","pages":"245-276"},"PeriodicalIF":4.8,"publicationDate":"2023-03-29","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10113164/pdf/","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"9820224","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"OA","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}