Journal of Hydrology最新文献

{"title":"Effects of hydroxylated silica surface on molecular-scale water freezing with implications for unsaturated permafrost","authors":"Shuting Ji ,&nbsp;Liang Lei ,&nbsp;Sergio Andres Galindo Torres ,&nbsp;Ling Li","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133901","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133901","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>In unsaturated frozen soil, a multi-phase complex system, the influence of initial water content on the unfrozen water content remains unclear. Understanding this influence is essential for determination of the soil freezing characteristic curve (SFCC), a constitutive relation in macroscale numerical models for permafrost. This unresolved issue stems from a lack of understanding of the underlying mechanisms, including microscale processes and interfacial effects. Here, we employed molecular dynamics (MD) simulations to investigate the water freezing-thawing process based on hydroxylated silica surface, resembling an unfrozen soil system. The results revealed that the interface between water and silica forms an ordered structure via hydrogen bonding, indicating an attraction of water molecules to the silica surface. The presence of the silica surface depresses the water triple point by 5.0 K. As the water content increases, along with the pore size, the triple point decreases further by nearly 10.0 K for a 10 nm increase in pore size. Through a simple yet physically based model, we identified that a smaller distance from water to silanol groups, corresponding to systems with lower initial water content, leads to a deeper potential well, which subsequently requires more energy for phase change and higher triple point. The deeper potential well also restricts the movement of water molecules, resulting in slower dynamic processes within smaller pores. This implies that the initial water content is important in obtaining the SFCC, since the initial water content can affect the water triple point.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"662 ","pages":"Article 133901"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144622537","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Characterization of the aquifer’s hydraulic properties using different pumping test modes: From oscillatory hydraulic tomography to steady state hydraulic tomography","authors":"Mohammed Aliouache ,&nbsp;Abderrahim Jardani ,&nbsp;Mohamed Krimissa ,&nbsp;Tan Minh Vu ,&nbsp;Beatriz Lourino Cabana ,&nbsp;Melanie Lorthioy","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133897","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133897","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The characterization of aquifers hydraulic properties (e.g., transmissivity and storativity) and understanding its hydrodynamics are very important for groundwater management. Hydraulic tomography (HT) is one widely used tool to achieve it. In this paper, we use the principal components geostatistical approach (PCGA) to map the transmissivity and the storativity of an aquifer by using oscillatory pumping tests, pumping tests (transient) and steady state data. Firstly, through a synthetic case study, we investigate the differences between HT results using different observation data obtained from different hydraulic tests. Moreover, we explore how sensitive are T and S estimates obtained using different observation data to changes in the hydraulic properties of a buffer area surrounding the inversion domain. Then, the synthetic case study is repeated using a real field configuration and a field application is performed. Results show that the heterogeneous area surrounding the inversion domain have a significant effect on Hydraulic Tomography results. Results also show that high frequency oscillatory pumping tests provide the best hydraulic tomography results especially for the storativity fields. Such effect becomes more pronounced when using transient and steady state observations of constant flow-rate pumping tests. Surrounding heterogeneity has a considerable effect on T field which in return affects the solution of S field as well.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"662 ","pages":"Article 133897"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-12","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144622539","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exports of organic matter, phosphorus and nitrogen from Sichuan Basin: A critical region regulating water quality of the Upper Yangtze River, China","authors":"Xiaoxiao Wang ,&nbsp;Yanhong Wu ,&nbsp;Mingliang Luo ,&nbsp;Konstantina Katsanou ,&nbsp;Jochen Wenninger ,&nbsp;Roland Bol","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133889","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133889","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The Chinese Yangtze River is a crucial nexus for nutrient cycling between the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau and the East China Sea, but it faces significant water quality challenges due to enhanced nutrient inputs from its sub-basins. The nutrient exports from the Sichuan Basin, a geographical region with intense human activities in southwest China, are foreseen to have significant impacts on the water quality of the Upper Yangtze River. To investigate the nutrient exports from the Sichuan Basin and their effects, we analysed daily data on Total Nitrogen (TN), Total Phosphorus (TP), and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD, proxy representing organic matter) collected from 58 monitoring stations on rivers across the Sichuan Basin during 2021–2023. The results indicated that the Sichuan Basin contributed approximately 50% of the increased TN, TP, and COD in the Upper Yangtze River. The Minjiang and Qujiang Rivers rank highest in the Sichuan Basin for TN, TP exports and COD exports, respectively. Hotspots of TN and TP levels were primarily concentrated in the the western basin, while COD hotspots were mainly located in the eastern basin. The spatial analysis identified urbanization and agricultural activities as the primary drivers of nutrient distribution patterns in the Sichuan Basin. These findings underscore the need for targeted policies and strategies to enhance the controlling TN and TP losses from urban and farming areas in the rainy seasons within the catchments of the Minjiang and Tuojiang Rivers is critical for achieving sustainable water quality improvements in the Upper Yangtze River. Moving forward, the implementation of integrated pollution management strategies, supported by real-time monitoring and machine learning-based predictive modeling, is imperative in the Sichuan Basin to address the challenges of water quality deterioration driven by climate change.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"662 ","pages":"Article 133889"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144605665","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"CEASA: Dominant spatial autocorrelation in dual-constraint calibration as the game-changer for hydrological modeling with high-uncertainty remotely sensed evaporation: Application to the Meichuan basin","authors":"Yan He ,&nbsp;Xianfeng Song ,&nbsp;Tatsuya Nemoto ,&nbsp;Chen Wang ,&nbsp;Jinghao Hu ,&nbsp;Huihui Mao ,&nbsp;Runkui Li ,&nbsp;Junzhi Liu ,&nbsp;Venkatesh Raghavan ,&nbsp;Zheng Duan","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133828","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133828","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Accurate evapotranspiration (ET) estimation is vital for hydrological modeling, yet remotely sensed ET (RS-ET) products are often limited by algorithmic uncertainties and sensor biases. To mitigate error propagation and better capture spatial patterns, this study introduces the Composite Efficiency of Absolute ET and Spatial Autocorrelation (CEASA) —a dual-constraint framework that integrates absolute ET magnitude and spatial autocorrelation to enhance simulation accuracy, which marks a pivotal shift by moving beyond traditional individual-value-based calibration to incorporate spatially explicit pattern constraints.</div><div>Using four RS-ET products in China’s Meichuan Basin (three high-bias: MOD16, GLASS, SSEBop; one low-bias: PMLV2), CEASA demonstrated: (1) Dual-constraint superiority: CEASA outperformed single-constraint methods. Compared to the absolute-value-only scheme (M1), it reduced PBIAS by 18–33 % and improved KGE from 0.47 to 0.51 to 0.76–0.77 under high-bias datasets, meanwhile improving KGE to 0.84 and reducing PBIAS to 9.4 % under low-bias PMLV2. It also surpassed spatial-pattern-only approaches by 11 % in KGE under low-bias data. Notably, CEASA achieved comparable streamflow accuracy to streamflow-based calibration (M0) while improving ET simulation. (2) ​​Quality adaptivity​​: CEASA’s weighted dual-criteria architecture dynamically adapted to RS-ET quality—achieving peak performance for PMLV2 and maintaining stable accuracy for high-bias datasets by emphasizing spatial neighborhood information. (3) Spatial dominance: Entropy analysis showed spatial autocorrelation contributed &gt;70 % of the optimization signal, with higher information content than absolute ET magnitude (2.85–3.42 vs. 0.39–1.22).</div><div>CEASA redefines RS-ET application by emphasizing spatial patterns, offering a bias-resilient solution for ungauged basins. Future work should explore scale-sensitive metrics and intelligent weighting schemes for broader applicability.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"662 ","pages":"Article 133828"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144611710","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Coupling dynamics of soil moisture-nitrate in deep profiles and their relations to groundwater nitrate pollution in irrigated apple production systems","authors":"Zhenxing Zhang ,&nbsp;Yubin Zhang ,&nbsp;Zhanjun Liu ,&nbsp;Yuanjun Zhu ,&nbsp;Chao Ai ,&nbsp;Xinpeng Xu ,&nbsp;Bingnian Zhai ,&nbsp;Zhaohui Wang","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133892","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133892","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Heavily fertilized and irrigated apple orchards on China’s Loess Plateau may contribute to regional groundwater nitrate pollution. To examine the groundwater pollution risk, we analysed moisture and nitrate in deep soil profiles in cropland and different aged apple orchards and nitrate in groundwater in conventionally and excessively irrigated orchards. Compared with cropland, conventionally irrigated apple orchards had higher moisture at 0–6 m but also a desiccation layer at 6.4–11 m. Regression analysis predicted desiccation would first appear at 14-yr apple orchards. Excessive irrigation did not eliminate the desiccation layer, and its thickness increased with stand age. Residual soil nitrate was significantly higher in orchards than in croplands. Soil NO₃⁻-N content stabilized at increasing depth with increasing stand age. Low NO₃⁻-N concentrations at depth and dual isotope comparisons of δ¹⁵N-NO₃⁻ and δ¹⁸O-NO₃⁻ indicated that 13 m was a sufficient depth to evaluate soil NO₃⁻-N in irrigated apple orchards. Groundwater NO₃⁻-N was much lowers in conventionally than in excessively irrigated apple orchards. According to a MixSIAR isotope mixing model, synthetic N fertilizer was the greatest contributor to groundwater NO₃⁻-N. Soil NO₃⁻-N was predicted to pollute groundwater at 38 years. Thus, fertilization and irrigation must be optimized to eliminate soil desiccation, reduce nitrate surplus, and protect groundwater.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"662 ","pages":"Article 133892"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144622547","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Tracking persistent declines in suspended sediment in the Lower Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers, 1992–2021: Harnessing WRTDSplus to characterize longitudinally varying trends and explore connections to streamflow","authors":"Jennifer Murphy ,&nbsp;Lindsey Schafer ,&nbsp;Scott Mize","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133885","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133885","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Suspended sediment (SS) continues a century-long decline in the Lower Mississippi and Atchafalaya Rivers, United States. In this study, we use the WRTDSplus model to estimate concentrations and loads for total, fine (&lt;0.0625 millimeter (mm)), and coarse (≥0.0625 mm) SS for 11 sites. This extension of the Weighted Regressions on Time, Discharge, and Season (WRTDS) model allows a fourth explanatory variable in the model formulation. We incorporated hysteresis terms for most models based on a residual analysis, which allowed for the identification of decreased flushing over time at some sites. Total, fine, and coarse SS concentrations and loads decreased at all sites over two trend periods (water years (WY) 1992–2021 and WY 2012–2021). Declines were largely due to changes in fine SS (mud and silt) but decreases in coarse SS (sands) were also widespread. On average, recent declines are more severe in the Lower Mississippi River below the Old River Control Complex (ORCC, −3.7 mg per liter per year (mg/L/yr)) compared to the Atchafalaya River (−2.0 mg/L/yr), although there is longitudinal variability within each river. The reach below the ORCC is a net SS sink, leading to complex temporal changes for the sites in this area. Streamflows (low, moderate, and high) have increased over these periods, with the last decade being particularly wet. Increasing streamflow and decreasing SS, with little evidence of amelioration, may influence spillway operations during floods, sediment diversion construction and operation, coastal restoration efforts, and aquatic health.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"662 ","pages":"Article 133885"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144622545","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Analysis of the impact of confining layers on aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) systems with a horizontal well doublet","authors":"Yinuo Wang,&nbsp;Junyuan Zhang,&nbsp;Hongbin Zhan","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133896","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133896","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Aquifer thermal energy storage (ATES) utilizes groundwater aquifers to store excess heat and conserve energy. The system is gaining popularity due to its potential in the energy transition as a renewable energy source. To better design the ATES system, it is critical to understand and model the heat transport process in the domain. Current studies applying numerical and analytical solutions to simulate ATES systems often simplify the model by ignoring the confining layers. Additionally, some studies fail to consider both transverse and longitudinal heat conductivity in this mode. This study presents a novel approach to modeling the ATES system by incorporating upper and lower confining layers with different geological materials. The thermal anisotropy of confining materials is incorporated into the model to evaluate the influence of transverse and longitudinal heat transport processes on thermal energy loss in the aquifer. More importantly, the model is tested with horizontal well doublets, which have not been discussed before. The results indicate that the horizontal well is as compatible as conventional vertical wells under the parameters used in this study. Ignoring confining layers, however, will overestimate the system’s recovery efficiency. With relatively large injection and extraction rates, the anisotropy of the confining materials has a minimal impact on the system. Overall, considering the existence of confining layers is critical for accurate ATES system modeling, and more accurate analytical or numerical models are still needed to better constrain the relative importance of each thermal parameter.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"662 ","pages":"Article 133896"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144622542","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A research agenda for improving flood resilience in Australia","authors":"Fiona Johnson ,&nbsp;Suresh Hettiarachchi","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133887","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133887","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>It is critical that we improve flood resilience in Australia due to the impacts of anthropogenic climate change which, through increasing rainfall extremes and changes to catchment wetness, challenges traditional approaches to flood design and emergency response. We review recent research on urban and rural flood resilience, emphasizing the importance of considering the entire water cycle and integrating nature-based solutions with traditional infrastructure. There are limitations in current infrastructure designed for specific flood standards and a clear need for flexible, adaptive solutions. We show the role of social capital and community engagement in building resilience, highlighting that flood resilience requires multidisciplinary research and cooperation, covering governance, planning, and response. There are a number of challenges in predicting hydrological extremes under climate change and it will be necessary to incorporate new data streams and machine learning into flood risk management. A case study of the 2022 Lismore floods illustrates the complex interplay of natural and human systems in flood resilience across a range of time and spatial scales. We conclude with recommendations for strengthening resilience through improved forecasting and design, community preparedness, and ecosystem protection.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"662 ","pages":"Article 133887"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144622544","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A mechanistic, distributed model for coupled simulation of soil water-plant, groundwater and surface flow system in arid/semi-arid agricultural watersheds (SurfMOD)—Model description and evaluation","authors":"Danning Mu ,&nbsp;Xu Xu ,&nbsp;Xue Xiao ,&nbsp;Tiago B. Ramos ,&nbsp;Chen Sun ,&nbsp;Xinyi Li ,&nbsp;Yihao Xun ,&nbsp;Guanhua Huang","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133890","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133890","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Hydrological processes in arid/semi-arid agricultural watersheds are challenging to simulate accurately due to the strong interactions within the hydrological cycle and the influences of agricultural activities. This paper introduces a new mechanistic, distributed hydrological model (named SurfMOD), developed to effectively simulate the dynamics of water and salt in the vadose zone, groundwater, surface water, plant, and their interactions over time and space. The processes are simulated based on the numerical solution of partial differential equations and a practical spatiotemporal coupling method is proposed to ensure the computational efficiency. In addition, SurMOD provides functions to consider various agricultural practices (e.g., surface mulching, soil bunds, canal seepage, and multi-order drainage system). SurfMOD was tested using observed data from typical arid/semi-arid agricultural areas in the upper Yellow River basin: an experimental site (Yangchang canal command area, YCA) during 2012–2013; and a region-scale area (Jiyuan Irrigation System, Jiyuan) in 2021. The results showed excellent agreement between the simulations and observed data, with coefficients of determination (R²) exceeding 0.44, 0.39, 0.38, and 0.87 for soil water content and salinity concentration, groundwater level, ditch drainage rate, and leaf area index, respectively. The Nash-Sutcliffe Efficiency was satisfactory, and the root mean square error was acceptably low in both case studies. Furthermore, the irrigation scenario tests and comparisons to previous studies demonstrate that SurfMOD offers significant advantages in both simulation accuracy and computational efficiency. Overall, SurfMOD enhances the capability of hydrological models to simulate coupled processes of complete water cycling and plant growth in arid/semi-arid agricultural watersheds. It could become a valuable tool for the quantitative analysis of arid/semi-arid agro-ecosystems, scenario forecasting, and the efficient management of water use and salinity control on a regional scale.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"662 ","pages":"Article 133890"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144622543","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"A new externally coupled, physically-based multi-model framework for simulating subsurface and overland flow hydrological processes on hillslopes","authors":"A T M Sakiur Rahman ,&nbsp;Jiří Šimůnek ,&nbsp;Scott A. Bradford ,&nbsp;Hoori Ajami ,&nbsp;Menberu B. Meles ,&nbsp;Lin Chen ,&nbsp;Adam Szymkiewicz ,&nbsp;Mateusz Pawlowicz ,&nbsp;Juan S. Acero Triana ,&nbsp;Alberto Casillas-Trasvina ,&nbsp;Sahila Beegum","doi":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133842","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.jhydrol.2025.133842","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>This study presents an innovative, computationally efficient, and flexible physically-based multi-model framework that couples three well-established state-of-the-art models: HYDRUS-1D (H1D) for vadose zone flow, KINEROS2 (K2) for overland flow, and MODFLOW-2005 (MF5) for groundwater flow. The coupled model, called H1D-K2-MF5, implements advanced techniques, such as dynamic time-stepping, dimensionality reduction, and adaptive pressure head boundary condition switching, to ensure precise simulations of flow processes and interactions among the three modeling domains. The model simulates flow processes at a hillslope scale, including runoff, infiltration, recharge, evapotranspiration, soil moisture redistribution, and groundwater dynamics. Model accuracy and functionality were tested and validated against benchmark simulations and by comparisons with the integrated watershed (IW) model ParFlow. The simulation domains include uniform and heterogeneous hillslopes, as well as a complex hillslope with pumping and stream-aquifer interactions. Simulated time series of outflow rates, soil water contents, groundwater heads, and water balance analyses demonstrated high accuracy and consistency with the IW model. The new model ran 17–20 times faster than ParFlow, demonstrating substantial computational efficiency. Results confirm the reliable exchange of water fluxes between the coupled model components due to the implementation of a boundary condition switching algorithm based on surface ponding, which enables realistic infiltration simulation, and the adjustment of vadose zone pressure heads, ensuring accurate recharge flux estimates. The modular design of the H1D-K2-MF5 model allows for flexible configuration between surface water, vadose zone, and groundwater components depending on specific study objectives, thereby enhancing its adaptability for diverse hydrological applications. Further developments will include the addition of reactive solute transport at hillslopes and extending to large-scale watersheds.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":362,"journal":{"name":"Journal of Hydrology","volume":"662 ","pages":"Article 133842"},"PeriodicalIF":5.9,"publicationDate":"2025-07-11","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144622546","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":1,"RegionCategory":"地球科学","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}