Sports Medicine and Health Science最新文献

{"title":"Mapping the acute trajectory of sport-related concussion outcomes across symptoms, cognition, and blood biomarkers","authors":"SoYoung Ahn ,&nbsp;Michael Prock ,&nbsp;Ji-won Seo ,&nbsp;Sanghyuk Han ,&nbsp;David Michael O'Sullivan ,&nbsp;Wook Song","doi":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.07.003","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.07.003","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Sport-related concussion (SRC) and its potential neurological sequela represent an emerging global health concern, requiring improved recovery management and strategies for return-to-play (RTP) to enhance brain health in athletes. Given the dynamic and multifaceted nature of SRC recovery, the purpose of this review is to synthesize existing literature on post-SRC outcomes in adult athletes, and to outline the temporal trajectories of key recovery indicators (symptoms, cognitive function, blood biomarkers) across distinct recovery phases until resolution. In the acute phase of SRC (first 48 ​h), symptom scores and brain damage markers peaked immediately, while cognitive impairments and neuroinflammation emerged with a slight delay. Following the initial rise, brain damage marker concentrations rapidly dropped below baseline levels at approximately 48 ​h following SRC injury. During the early recovery phase, neuroinflammation and most cognitive alterations resolved after 3–5 days, though symptom burden and attention deficits persisted for up to 7 days. Despite prolonged alterations reported in some individuals, recovery markers typically returned to pre-injury levels in the transition phase (≤ 2 weeks), though mild attention deficits were detected up to 3 weeks, and TNF-α concentrations remained elevated throughout late recovery (&gt; 2 weeks). These results reveal distinct temporal discrepancies across recovery markers and emphasize that physiological disturbances can outlast symptom resolution, underscoring the need for both multimodal assessments and appropriately timed evaluations to accurately track recovery progression. Incorporating structured follow-ups at key time points, particularly beyond symptom resolution, may improve RTP decision-making and reduce the risk of premature return and long-term neurological consequences.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":33620,"journal":{"name":"Sports Medicine and Health Science","volume":"8 2","pages":"Pages 119-127"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147285351","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Exercise preconditioning prevents immobilization-induced skeletal muscle atrophy by activating Prmt1-p38/ATF2-Sesn1 signaling axis in C57BL/6J mice","authors":"Xuege Yang ,&nbsp;Yuchen Zou ,&nbsp;Haoyu Wang ,&nbsp;Yanmei Niu ,&nbsp;Li Fu","doi":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.04.001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.04.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Purpose</h3><div>This study aimed to explore the effects of a 10-week combined exercise regimen on immobilization-induced muscle atrophy and elucidate the possible function of Protein arginine methyltransferase 1 (Prmt1) in this process.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>8-week-old male C57BL/6J mice were carried out combined exercise for 10 weeks. One week before the end of the intervention, mice underwent cast immobilization. Additionally, to investigate the potential mechanism in exercise-induced protection of skeletal muscle, mice in the exercise preconditioning group were administered TC-E−5003(an inhibitor of Prmt1 enzymatic activity). Exercise performance, muscle mass, and the cross-sectional area (CSA) of muscle fibers were analyzed. Besides, Prmt1 and Sestrin1 (Sesn1) were either overexpressed or inhibited in C2C12 myotubes to elucidate the underlying mechanism.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Exercise preconditioning not only significantly improved muscle mass and motor ability in immobilized mice but also inhibited excessive activation of degradation pathways and enhanced protein synthesis. Importantly, Prmt1 mediated the protective effects of exercise preconditioning on muscle atrophy. Mechanistically, Prmt1 regulated the p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38)/activating transcription factor 2 (ATF2) pathway, which modulates Sesn1 expression. Sesn1 acts as a downstream of Prmt1 and ATF2, contributing to the myoblast differentiation and skeletal muscle regeneration through AMP-Activated protein kinase α2 (AMPKα2)/transcriptional co-activator PPAR-γ co-activator-1 α (PGC-1α) signaling pathway.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Taken together, our results highlighted the effectiveness of exercise preconditioning in preventing muscle atrophy via the Prmt1-Sesn1 pathway.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":33620,"journal":{"name":"Sports Medicine and Health Science","volume":"8 2","pages":"Pages 197-209"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147285380","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Resilience against exercise-related coronary atherosclerosis: A case study in a master athlete participating in 500 marathons","authors":"Beat Knechtle ,&nbsp;Sasa Duric ,&nbsp;Volker Scheer ,&nbsp;Pantelis T. Nikolaidis ,&nbsp;Daniela Chlíbková ,&nbsp;Luciano Bernardes Leite ,&nbsp;Ivan Cuk ,&nbsp;Pedro Forte ,&nbsp;Matthias Wilhelm ,&nbsp;Katja Weiss ,&nbsp;Thomas Rosemann","doi":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.07.011","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.07.011","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background and purpose</h3><div>Lifelong endurance exercise is generally associated with cardiovascular health benefits. However, recent studies suggest that prolonged high-volume training may contribute to coronary atherosclerosis, even in athletes with low traditional cardiovascular risk. This case report aims to explore the cardiovascular status of a master endurance athlete with an exceptionally high lifetime training volume, in light of recent concerns raised in the literature.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>We present the case of a 60-year-old recreational male marathon runner with no history of cardiovascular disease, who completed over 500 marathons between the ages of 30 and 60 years, covering ∼127 ​000-km running. In 2024 alone, he completed 60 marathons. Cardiovascular evaluation included clinical risk assessment and coronary computed tomography angiography (CTCA).</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>The runner was asymptomatic, had a low ESC-SCORE2 (3.3%), a favorable lipid profile, and normal levels of high-sensitivity C-reactive protein and lipoprotein (a). CTCA revealed no evidence of calcified, mixed, or non-calcified coronary plaques.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>This case highlights that some master athletes may demonstrate resilience to coronary atherosclerosis despite decades of high training volume. In low-risk individuals, prolonged endurance training alone may not necessarily lead to coronary artery disease, emphasizing the need for individualized cardiovascular screening strategies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":33620,"journal":{"name":"Sports Medicine and Health Science","volume":"8 2","pages":"Pages 219-227"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147285386","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Post-workout supplementation with CoQ10 and sports drink on exercise performance and muscle recovery after exercise in normal and overweight males","authors":"Phyo Pyae Thar ,&nbsp;Teerarat Likitwattanasade ,&nbsp;Ratchakrit Srikuea","doi":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.02.005","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.02.005","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Post-workout supplementation has been used in athletes and recreational exercisers; however, responses between normal and overweight individuals on exercise performance and muscle recovery are less known.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Normal and overweight young adult males (21 subjects/group) participated in resistance and fatiguing exercises before receiving post-workout supplements: placebo, coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), or sports drink in a crossover design. Resistance exercises included upper body exercise (bench press, upright row, and standing shoulder press) and lower body exercise (dead lift, back squat, and front squat) at 75% of one-repetition maximum (1 RM). Fatiguing exercise was performed on a cycle ergometer with 3 ​min of all-out effort at 3.5% of body mass. Participants consumed post-workout supplements within 10 ​min of exercise completion and repeated-bout exercise was performed 1 ​h later, followed by cardiovascular responses, urinary biomarkers, and delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) assessments.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>There were effects of overweight on resistance exercise volume, critical power, fatigue index, and post-exercise diastolic blood pressure (DBP). However, no differences in urinary biomarkers of muscle damage (potassium and creatinine) or DOMS between normal and overweight individuals. After supplementation, CoQ10 and sports drink increased resistance exercise volume regardless of body mass and increased critical power in the normal group. Additionally, CoQ10 supplementation was associated with a reduction in urinary biomarkers and DOMS in both groups.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>These findings are beneficial for sport scientists, nutritionists, and exercise physiologists in guiding post-workout supplementation with CoQ10 and sports drink to improve exercise performance and muscle recovery in normal and overweight individuals.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":33620,"journal":{"name":"Sports Medicine and Health Science","volume":"8 2","pages":"Pages 172-184"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-03-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"147291108","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Probiotics, gut microbiota and physical activity: A close relationship","authors":"Ioannis Alexandros Charitos ,&nbsp;Marica Colella ,&nbsp;Domenico Maria Carretta ,&nbsp;Luigi Santacroce","doi":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.04.003","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.04.003","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>The topic of this review is the study of the gut microbiota (GM), and the use of probiotics, especially in humans, as a new frontier in the field of prevention and health in general. The beneficial effects and functions performed by probiotics in the GM are increasingly at the centre of both scientific, medical, and pharmaceutical interest. It is now known that diet and probiotics can modify the GM, although in these situations there is a need for greater and more in-depth research regarding the methods and timing of treatment. However, the relationship between physical activity, GM, and probiotics is still largely unclear, as regards certain mechanisms between physical exercise and probiotics in humans.</div></div><div><h3>Discussion</h3><div>In this study, we tried to demonstrate whether and how physical exercise was able to alter the composition of the microbiota and how probiotics can facilitate it. Therefore, alteration of the microbiota was considered in terms of both diversity and composition.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>The ones examined propose vastly different physical exercises, both in terms of timing and type of intervention itself, and the use of probiotics.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":33620,"journal":{"name":"Sports Medicine and Health Science","volume":"8 1","pages":"Pages 43-49"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146049156","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Passing the baton","authors":"Scott K. Powers","doi":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.12.002","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.12.002","url":null,"abstract":"","PeriodicalId":33620,"journal":{"name":"Sports Medicine and Health Science","volume":"8 1","pages":"Pages 1-2"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146049153","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"ATLAS study: Design, athletic performance, and sex-specific regression models for muscle strength in the Greek population","authors":"Natia A. Pogosova ,&nbsp;Despoina Brekou ,&nbsp;Ioanna E. Gavra ,&nbsp;Efthymia A. Katsareli ,&nbsp;Eleni More ,&nbsp;Panagiotis G. Symianakis ,&nbsp;Maria Kafyra ,&nbsp;Ioanna Panagiota Kalafati ,&nbsp;Giannis Arnaoutis ,&nbsp;George V. Dedoussis","doi":"10.1016/j.smhs.2024.11.002","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.smhs.2024.11.002","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Purpose</h3><div>ATLAS is a cross-sectional study aiming to investigate environmental and genetic determinants of athletic performance in healthy Greek competitive athletes (CA). This article presents the study design, investigates the muscle strength performance (MSP) of 289 adult and teenage CA, exercisers, and physically inactive individuals (PI), and proposes predictive models of MSP for adults.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>Muscle maximal, speed, and explosive strength (MMS/MSS/MES) at unilateral maximal concentric flexion and extension contraction (FC/EC) were evaluated using Biodex System 3 PRO™ at 60 °/s, 180 °/s, and 300 °/s, while additional performance markers were assessed through field ergometric testing. Participants were interviewed about their lifestyle, dietary habits, physical activity, injury, and medical history. Body composition was assessed via bioelectrical impedance. gDNA was extracted from biochemical samples and then genotyped. Statistical analysis was conducted using IBM SPSS Statistics v21.0 and R.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Age, fitness, and sex impacted correlations of MSP with body composition and anthropometric measurements (<em>p</em> ​&lt; ​0.05). Among CA, females outperformed males in accuracy (<em>p</em> ​&lt; ​0.001) while, males outperformed females in anaerobic power, MSP, speed, and endurance (<em>p</em> ​&lt; ​0.001). Adult CA outperformed exercisers and PI in MMS, MSS, and MES (<em>p</em> ​&lt; ​0.05). Multiple linear regression models, with predictors age, FFM, body extremity, training load explained the majority of variation in MMS (<em>R</em>²_adj:71.4%–88.9%), MSS (<em>R</em>²_adj:64.8%–78.4 ​%), and MES (<em>R</em>²_adj:52.7%–68.4 ​%) at EC, FC, and their mean (<em>p</em> ​&lt; ​0.001).</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Muscle-strengthening strategies should be customized according to individual fitness levels, body composition, and anthropometric measurements. The innovative sex-specific regression models assessing MMS, MSS, and MES at EC and FC provide a framework for personalizing rehabilitation and skill-specific training strategies.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":33620,"journal":{"name":"Sports Medicine and Health Science","volume":"8 1","pages":"Pages 79-95"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146049188","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"An exerkine-based prognostic index reveals immune heterogeneity and predicts outcomes across 33 cancers","authors":"Jiawei Du ,&nbsp;Jinghua Hou","doi":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.05.002","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.05.002","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>Exercise exerts tumor-suppressive effects across multiple malignancies, partly through exerkines—exercise-induced secreted factors with immunomodulatory and metabolic functions. However, the prognostic relevance of exerkines across cancer types remains unclear, and the molecular determinants of exercise responsiveness are poorly defined.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>We systematically profiled 183 curated exerkine-related genes across 33 cancer types from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) using non-negative matrix factorization (NMF) to define molecular subtypes. Prognostic significance was evaluated via Kaplan-Meier analysis. For five cancers with consistent survival divergence (LGG, KIRC, LUAD, PAAD, ACC), we developed an Exerkine Prognostic Index (EPI) using LASSO Cox regression and validated its predictive performance through time-dependent ROC analysis. Immune cell infiltration (CIBERSORT), stromal/immune scores (ESTIMATE), and immune checkpoint expression were assessed to characterize immune landscape differences between EPI subgroups.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Exerkine-based NMF clustering identified prognostically distinct subtypes in 25 cancers. The EPI robustly stratified patients into high- and low-risk groups with significant differences in overall survival (<em>p</em> ​&lt; ​0.001). High-EPI subgroups were associated with elevated infiltration of immunosuppressive cells (e.g., Tregs, M0 macrophages), altered immune/stromal scores, and differential expression of immune checkpoints such as PD-L1 and CTLA4 in a cancer-type-specific manner.</div></div><div><h3>Discussion</h3><div>Our findings reveal that exerkine expression patterns capture biologically and clinically relevant heterogeneity across cancers. The EPI provides a robust molecular tool to stratify patients by prognosis and immune contexture, offering insights into differential exercise responsiveness.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusions</h3><div>Exerkines represent promising biomarkers for risk stratification and precision-guided exercise interventions in oncology.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":33620,"journal":{"name":"Sports Medicine and Health Science","volume":"8 1","pages":"Pages 110-118"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146049197","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Does transcranial direct current stimulation enhance the hypoalgesic effect of exercise?","authors":"Aidan Lewis ,&nbsp;Ben Rattray ,&nbsp;Constantino Toufexis ,&nbsp;Andrew Flood","doi":"10.1016/j.smhs.2024.12.002","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.smhs.2024.12.002","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Exercise produces a decrease in pain sensitivity via an effect called exercise-induced hypoalgesia (EIH). Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), acting on similar analgesic mechanisms as EIH, represents a potential complementary intervention that may amplify the effects of exercise on pain. This study aimed to explore if anodal tDCS could enhance the effect of exercise on pain compared to exercise alone. A total of 35 healthy participants aged 19–37 years completed a familiarisation session followed by two separate sessions where active and sham tDCS was applied in a randomised cross-over design. The familiarisation session involved familiarisation to the pain assessment and exercise tasks, while the subsequent tDCS sessions involved pain sensitivity assessment, exercise and either anodal tDCS or sham tDCS. tDCS doses were applied at 2 ​mA over the primary motor cortex for 10 ​min, with the reference electrode placed over the contralateral supraorbital area. The exercise task involved a sustained isometric grip strength contraction at 35% of maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) until volitional exhaustion. Pain sensitivity was evaluated as pressure pain threshold before tDCS, after tDCS, and after exercise. Across both tDCS conditions, pain threshold was higher after exercise when compared to pre- and post-tDCS measurement. This increase in pain threshold did not differ between active and sham tDCS conditions. Our findings suggest that the hypoalgesic effects of active anodal tDCS over the motor cortex prior to exercise are no greater than the effects of sham tDCS prior to exercise.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":33620,"journal":{"name":"Sports Medicine and Health Science","volume":"8 1","pages":"Pages 102-109"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146049195","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Does longer-muscle length resistance training cause greater longitudinal growth in humans? A systematic review","authors":"Milo Wolf ,&nbsp;Patroklos Androulakis Korakakis ,&nbsp;Michael D. Roberts ,&nbsp;Daniel L. Plotkin ,&nbsp;Martino V. Franchi ,&nbsp;Bret Contreras ,&nbsp;Menno Henselmans ,&nbsp;Stian Larsen ,&nbsp;Brad J. Schoenfeld","doi":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.03.001","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.smhs.2025.03.001","url":null,"abstract":"<div><h3>Background</h3><div>This paper aimed to systematically review the literature regarding the effects of resistance training (RT) performed at longer-muscle length (LML) versus shorter-muscle length (SML) on proxy measurements for longitudinal hypertrophy.</div></div><div><h3>Methods</h3><div>We included studies that satisfied the following criteria: (1) be a resistance training intervention with a comparison of LML vs SML-RT; (2) assess both fascicle length (FL) and muscle size pre- and post-intervention; (3) involve healthy adults aged ≥ 18 years; (4) be published in an English-language journal, and; (5) have a minimum training intervention duration of 4 weeks. Three databases were searched in February 2024 (Google Scholar, PubMed/Medline, Scopus) for relevant articles, alongside 'forward' and 'backward' citation searching of articles included and additions via authors' personal knowledge. The results of studies were described narratively, compared, and contrasted. Eight studies met the inclusion criteria, totaling a sample size of 120.</div></div><div><h3>Results</h3><div>Our results suggest that both muscle size and fascicle length increases may be greater following LML-RT versus SML-RT, suggesting LML-RT may lead to greater longitudinal hypertrophy than SML-RT. Notably, evidence is largely mixed; no studies to date have attempted to estimate serial sarcomere number changes from LML versus SML-RT, and all but one study used linear extrapolation methods to estimate FL, which has questionable validity. Therefore, the structural adaptations underlying hypertrophy from LML-RT remain undetermined.</div></div><div><h3>Conclusion</h3><div>In conclusion, results suggest that LML-RT may be superior to SML-RT for inducing muscle hypertrophy and, more specifically, longitudinal growth, though evidence is mixed.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":33620,"journal":{"name":"Sports Medicine and Health Science","volume":"8 1","pages":"Pages 34-42"},"PeriodicalIF":2.3,"publicationDate":"2026-01-01","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"146049155","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}