{"title":"5. Gendering the saints","authors":"S. Yarrow","doi":"10.1093/ACTRADE/9780199676514.003.0005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/ACTRADE/9780199676514.003.0005","url":null,"abstract":"Historically, men have always received greater public recognition for their sanctity than women. Why were women under-represented among those venerated as saints? The church is historically a patriarchal institution and the abiding sense that sainthood is a male distinction meshed with other historically patriarchal discourses of the family, and of medical and philosophical knowledge. ‘Gendering the saints’ explains that despite these difficulties, the road to sanctity for women was not impassable. It discusses the contexts in which different varieties of female sanctity emerged and flourished and considers three portraits of female sanctity—Teresa of Ávila, Thérèse of Lisieux, and Mother Teresa—women who shared a name, but found their own distinctive paths to sainthood.","PeriodicalId":264916,"journal":{"name":"Very Short Introductions","volume":"70 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"134060021","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"4. Early modern sainthood","authors":"S. Yarrow","doi":"10.1093/actrade/9780199676514.003.0004","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199676514.003.0004","url":null,"abstract":"‘Early modern sainthood’ describes the impact of the 16th-century Reformation on the image of the Christian saint. The Reformation, triggered by Augustinian friar Martin Luther, was a struggle for the highest stakes between fierce adversaries over the relationship between church and state, the authority and mission of the Church, the fundamental doctrines of the Christian faith, and the conscience of every soul in Christendom. It spurred immense intellectual creativity, fuelled iconoclasm and bitter polemic, and brought protracted war and martyrdom. It ultimately divided Europe into the Catholic states of southern Europe and those states of northern Europe whose princes embraced various kinds of Protestantism.","PeriodicalId":264916,"journal":{"name":"Very Short Introductions","volume":"100 3 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126059669","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"7. Writing the saints","authors":"S. Yarrow","doi":"10.1093/actrade/9780199676514.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199676514.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"Hagiography, or ‘writings about the holy’, is the family of literature dedicated to saints. ‘Writing the saints’ considers the origins, form, and functions of hagiography, explaining that its roots were in classical forms of secular biography and in the Gospels. It borrowed from the former all the persuasive techniques and forms used to describe the lives of extraordinary men and women, and from the latter it drew its central purpose and dramatic theme. Aside from its invaluable testimony to religious practice, ecclesiastical, political, and social history, hagiography’s longevity and variety has made it a vast storehouse of human understandings and expressions of spirituality, and of the relationship between God, the saints, and humanity.","PeriodicalId":264916,"journal":{"name":"Very Short Introductions","volume":"57 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114078959","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"3. Saints in the Middle Ages","authors":"S. Yarrow","doi":"10.1093/ACTRADE/9780199676514.003.0003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/ACTRADE/9780199676514.003.0003","url":null,"abstract":"The Church’s triumphal collaboration with the Roman Empire had ended by 500 ce. Political authority hung on in the West through the accommodation reached between two new forms of leadership, the holy man bishop and the Christian king. Saints and their relics—venerated at cathedrals, the court chapels of kings, and monasteries—fostered a new civilization, Latin Christendom. ‘Saints in the Middle Ages’ discusses the Carolingian reform of the cult of saints; the roles of saints in religious life in the Byzantine Empire; the changing relationship between church and saints in the later Middle Ages as a result of papal-led reformation; and the vernacularization of saintly patronage from the 13th‒15th centuries.","PeriodicalId":264916,"journal":{"name":"Very Short Introductions","volume":"88 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-09-27","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"126812613","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"Saints: A Very Short Introduction","authors":"S. Yarrow","doi":"10.1093/actrade/9780199676514.001.0001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199676514.001.0001","url":null,"abstract":"Saints: A Very Short Introduction looks at the origins, ideas, and definitions of sainthood, sanctity, and saints in the early Church, tracing their development in history and explaining the social roles saints played in the ancient, medieval, and modern worlds. It considers the treatment of saints as objects of literary and artistic expression and interpretation, and as examples of idealised male and female heroism, comparing Christian saints and holy figures to venerated figures in other religious cultures, including Islam, Buddhism, and Hinduism. It concludes by considering the experiences of devotees to saints, and looking at how saints continue to be a powerful presence in our modern world.","PeriodicalId":264916,"journal":{"name":"Very Short Introductions","volume":"98 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-09-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"123050265","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"7. The Singularity","authors":"M. Boden","doi":"10.1093/actrade/9780199602919.003.0007","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199602919.003.0007","url":null,"abstract":"AI’s future has been hyped since its inception. Today, the prime example is the Singularity: the proposed point in time at which machines become more intelligent than humans. First, AI would reach human-level intelligence. Soon afterwards, AGI would morph into ASI—‘S’ for superhuman, with systems intelligent enough to copy themselves to outnumber us and improve themselves to out-think us. The most important problems and decisions would then be addressed by computers. ‘The Singularity’ explains that this notion is hugely contentious. It considers competing predictions, concluding that even if the probability of the Singularity is extremely small, the possible consequences are so grave that we should start taking precautions now.","PeriodicalId":264916,"journal":{"name":"Very Short Introductions","volume":"16 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"129356417","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"3. Language, creativity, emotion","authors":"M. Boden","doi":"10.1093/actrade/9780199602919.003.0003","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199602919.003.0003","url":null,"abstract":"If AI cannot model language, creativity, and emotion, hopes of artificial general intelligence (AGI) are illusory. These quintessentially ‘human’ areas have been modeled, but only up to a point. ‘Language, creativity, emotion’ questions whether AI systems could ever appear to possess these areas. It first considers natural language processing (NLP). NLP generation is more difficult than NLP acceptance due to both thematic content and grammatical form. On the creativity front, AI technology has generated many ideas that are historically new, surprising, and valuable. AI concepts also help to explain human creativity by distinguishing three types: combinational, exploratory, and transformational. It concludes that if we are ever to achieve AGI, emotions such as anxiety must be included—and used.","PeriodicalId":264916,"journal":{"name":"Very Short Introductions","volume":"15 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"114695960","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"5. Robots and artificial life","authors":"M. Boden","doi":"10.1093/actrade/9780199602919.003.0005","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199602919.003.0005","url":null,"abstract":"Artificial life (A-Life) models biological systems. Like AI, it has both technological and scientific aims. ‘Robots and artificial life’ explains that A-Life is integral to AI, because all the intelligence we know about is found in living organisms. AI technologists turn to biology in developing practical applications of many kinds, including robots, evolutionary programming, and self-organizing devices. Robots are quintessential examples of AI, having high visibility and being hugely ingenious—and very big business, too. Evolutionary AI, although widely used, is less well known. Self-organizing machines are even less familiar. Nevertheless, in the quest to understand self-organization, AI has been as useful to biology as biology has been to AI.","PeriodicalId":264916,"journal":{"name":"Very Short Introductions","volume":"29 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"127152811","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"1. What is artificial intelligence?","authors":"Margaret A. Boden","doi":"10.1093/actrade/9780199602919.003.0001","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199602919.003.0001","url":null,"abstract":"Artificial intelligence (AI) seeks to make computers do the sorts of things that minds can do, which involves psychological skills such as perception, association, prediction, planning, and motor control. Intelligence is a richly structured space of diverse information-processing capacities. Accordingly, AI uses many different techniques, addressing many different tasks. ‘What is Artificial Intelligence?’ explains the two main aims of AI: one being technological and the other scientific. It looks at AI’s influence on the life sciences and philosophy. Can any AI system possess real intelligence, creativity, or life? It also considers how AI began, virtual machines, the major types of AI, and cybernetics.","PeriodicalId":264916,"journal":{"name":"Very Short Introductions","volume":"1 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"131163344","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
{"title":"2. General intelligence as the Holy Grail","authors":"M. Boden","doi":"10.1093/actrade/9780199602919.003.0002","DOIUrl":"https://doi.org/10.1093/actrade/9780199602919.003.0002","url":null,"abstract":"A host of state-of-the-art AI applications exist, designed for countless specific tasks and used in almost every area of life, by laymen and professionals alike. Many outperform even the most expert humans. In that sense, progress has been spectacular. But the AI pioneers were also hoping for systems with general intelligence. ‘General intelligence as the Holy Grail’ explains why artificial general intelligence is still highly elusive despite recent increases in computer power. It considers the general AI strategies in recent research—heuristics, planning, mathematical simplification, and different forms of knowledge representation—and discusses the concepts of the frame problem, agents and distributed cognition, machine learning, and generalist systems.","PeriodicalId":264916,"journal":{"name":"Very Short Introductions","volume":"78 1","pages":"0"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2018-08-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"130491642","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}
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