Toxicology Reports最新文献

{"title":"Acute and subchronic toxicity of aqueous extracts of Combretum micranthum (G. Don) and Gardenia sokotensis (Hutch) having ethnobotanical uses in Burkina Faso","authors":"OUEDRAOGO Elisabeth ,&nbsp;ZABRE Généviève ,&nbsp;TINDANO Basile ,&nbsp;YOUGBARE Wendyam Joëlle Raymonde ,&nbsp;OWONA Pascal Emmanuel ,&nbsp;BAYALA Balé","doi":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102097","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102097","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Medicinal plants are the major sources of drugs used to treat diseases. Scientific studies were performed on some plants, but few data are available on the medicinal plants used to manage bone diseases in Burkina Faso. This study was conducted to identify medicinal plants used in the treatment of osteoporosis and investigate the acute and subchronic toxicity of <em>Combretum micranthum</em> and <em>Gardenia sokotensis</em> aqueous extracts. A survey was carried out through a structured interview with traditional practitioners. Phytochemical screening was performed using a validated thin-layer chromatographic method. The acute oral toxicity study of extracts was validated at 2000 mg/kg in mice. In the subchronic toxicity, rats were orally administered 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg of each extract for 90 days. Results show sixty-one plant species divided into 33 families. <em>C. micranthum</em> and <em>G. sokotensis</em> were most cited. Phytochemical screening of aqueous extracts of plants revealed flavonoids, tannins, and terpenoids. Acute toxicity study indicated up to 2000 mg/kg of each extract was tolerated without death or any signs of toxicity. In the subchronic toxicity test, physiological, serum biochemistry, and hematology examination, no features suggestive of each extract's toxicity were observed at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg. The hepatic balance (aspartate and alanine aminotransferases) was significantly (p &lt; 0.0001) reduced at doses of 100 and 200 mg/kg. A significant (p &lt; 0.001) decrease in triglyceride and cholesterol levels was observed. To conclude, extracts were non-toxic and could be used for their ethnopharmacological properties, but experimental therapeutic evidence is still needed.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23129,"journal":{"name":"Toxicology Reports","volume":"15 ","pages":"Article 102097"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-28","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144723647","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Mild and reversible nephrotoxicity following repeated administration of damnacanthal in nude mice","authors":"Noppanan Kotsaouppara ,&nbsp;Thunyatorn Yimsoo ,&nbsp;Worapapar Treesuppharat ,&nbsp;Jeeraphong Thanongsaksrikul ,&nbsp;Potjanee Srimanote","doi":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102088","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102088","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Damnacanthal was previously shown to be a promising colorectal cancer therapeutic candidate. Its efficacy relied on multiple administrations. This study, therefore, aims to assess the renal toxicity of 20 mg/kg damnacanthal (DAM20) in nude mice following three, seven and 14 repeated administrations. No clinical signs of renal toxicity and abnormal renal tissue histopathology were demonstrated. Seven repeated doses of DAM20 resulted in a decrease in BUN, increased urine-serum creatinine ratio, and urine microalbumin leakage (<em>p</em>-value = 0.031, 0.016 and 0.028, respectively), indicating the perturbation of kidney and liver functions. Some of these abnormalities were reversible to the normal ranges when the treatment continued to 14 repeated doses. However, significant kidney enlargement and increased urine creatinine (<em>p</em>- value = 0.032 and 0.030) were observed, indicating fluid retention and chronic kidney disease. Immunohistochemical analysis and TUNEL assay consistently demonstrated the absence of cleaved caspase-3 expression, DNA fragmentation, and infiltration of pan-macrophages (F4/80) and M2 macrophages (CD206) in the renal tissues of all mice subjected to three, seven, and 14 repeated doses of DAM20. A single exception was observed in one mouse from the 14-dose group, which exhibited minimal cleaved caspase-3 activation (0.14 % positive area). However, a significant increase in KIM-1 expression in renal tissue following 14 repeated doses of DAM20 (<em>p</em>- value = 0.012) indicated the presence of renal tubular injury. Interestingly, the absence of DNA fragmentation and macrophage infiltration in the renal cortex suggests that the DAM20-induced injury was mild, successfully resolved through endogenous repair mechanisms, and did not progress to irreversible damage or tissue remodeling. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that repeated administration of DAM20 in nude mice resulted in mild and reversible nephrotoxicity. However, further large-scale investigations are warranted to gain a more comprehensive understanding of damnacanthal toxicity profile and to ensure its safe use in potential therapeutic applications.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23129,"journal":{"name":"Toxicology Reports","volume":"15 ","pages":"Article 102088"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-25","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144771053","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Multi-endpoint assessment of tunnel wash water and tyre-particle leachate in zebrafish larvae","authors":"Shubham Varshney ,&nbsp;Chinmayi Ramaghatta ,&nbsp;Prabhugouda Siriyappagouder ,&nbsp;Andy M. Booth ,&nbsp;Lisbet Sørensen ,&nbsp;Pål A. Olsvik","doi":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102096","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102096","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Washing of road tunnels is essential for removing accumulated pollutants such as tyre wear particles, brake dust, exhaust residues, and road debris to ensure visibility and safe driving. Tunnel washing generates large volumes of contaminated runoff known as untreated tunnel wash runoff (UTWR). Some countries filter UTWR through a sedimentation process before release to reduce contamination, generating what is known as treated tunnel wash runoff (TWR). This study investigates the potential environmental impact of diluted UTWR (25 %) and TWR (50 %) by evaluating their toxicity in fish and comparing the effect to tyre-particle leachate (TPL, 2 g/L). UTWR was collected during tunnel cleaning, and TWR was collected after 14 days of filtration through sand sediments, from the Bodø tunnel in Norway. Zebrafish larvae, used as a fish model, exposed to contaminated runoff exhibited increased mortality, impaired growth, developmental anomalies, altered swimming behaviour, and changes in gene expression. Both UTWR and TWR exposure induced significant toxicity in zebrafish larvae, though the toxicity caused by TWR was notably lower than that of UTWR. This study shows that current filtration methods of tunnel wash water reduce the levels of most pollutants, however, more research is needed on how tunnel wash-water runoff affect aquatic ecosystems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23129,"journal":{"name":"Toxicology Reports","volume":"15 ","pages":"Article 102096"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-23","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144704605","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Potential protective effect of phycocyanin against gibberellic acid-induced cerebellar toxicity in female rats and their offspring","authors":"Heba Abdelnaser Aboelsoud ,&nbsp;Ebtihal Kamal ,&nbsp;Shaimaa R. Abdelmohsen ,&nbsp;Amany M. Abo-Ouf ,&nbsp;Ayman Geddawy ,&nbsp;Mikail Akbulut ,&nbsp;Shaimaa M. Hafez","doi":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102090","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102090","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Gibberellic acid (GA3), a widely used plant growth regulator, enhances plant size and availability; however, its potential cerebellar toxic effects during pregnancy and lactation remain unclear. The possible neuroprotective role of phycocyanin (PC), a natural antioxidant pigment, against GA3-induced cerebellar toxicity has not been thoroughly investigated, particularly in pregnancy and lactation. Accordingly, the present study aimed to evaluate the protective effect of PC against GA3-induced cerebellar toxicity in mother rats and their offspring. A total of twenty-four pregnant Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups. Group I (Control) received the vehicle. Group II (PC-treated): received PC (200 mg/kg body weight). Group-III (GA3-treated): received GA3 (55 mg/kg body weight). Group IV (GA3 +PC-treated): received both GA3 (55 mg/kg body weight) and PC (200 mg/kg body weight). All treatments were administered daily via the oral route to the mothers throughout pregnancy and for two weeks after delivery. Light-microscopic and ultrastructural analysis of the cerebellar cortex was performed. The oxidative stress parameters glutathione peroxidase (GPX), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and lipid peroxidation (LPO) in cerebellar tissues were assessed. The data were analyzed using two-way ANOVA (Python and Google CoLab). The results revealed that GA3 administration caused degenerative alterations and damage in the cerebellar cortex, as well as significant oxidative stress, evidenced by increased LPO and decreased GPX and SOD levels in female rats and their offspring. On the other hand, co-administration of PC significantly ameliorated the histological and biochemical alterations induced by GA3 exposure. These findings suggest that PC supplementation may offer a promising protective strategy against GA3-induced cerebellar toxicity in both mother rats and their offspring.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23129,"journal":{"name":"Toxicology Reports","volume":"15 ","pages":"Article 102090"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-22","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144695183","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Pharmacogenetic exploration of buprenorphine and related metabolites in umbilical cord blood","authors":"Amelia Monfared ,&nbsp;Derek E. Murrell ,&nbsp;Darshan S. Shah ,&nbsp;Melissa Hoang ,&nbsp;Stacy D. Brown ,&nbsp;Sam Harirforoosh","doi":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102093","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102093","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The goal of this study was to explore associations between single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and umbilical cord blood concentrations of buprenorphine and its metabolites following maternal administration. This is a sub-study of a prospective observational cohort investigation which included pregnant women receiving buprenorphine for opioid use disorder during pregnancy. Following delivery, umbilical cord blood samples were collected and genotyped using a pharmacogenetic panel. The drug and metabolite concentrations were analyzed through liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, and genetic association analysis was completed using PLINK software. The included neonates (n = 14) had a mean birth weight of 3.00 ± 0.39 kg and were born to mothers receiving a mean buprenorphine dose of 10.29 ± 6.22 mg. Ten concentration groupings (drug, single metabolite, as well as drug/metabolite(s) combinations) produced 18 unique SNP associations. Two significant associations included variations in CYP3A4 and UGT1A1, which play a role in the metabolism of buprenorphine. These preliminary findings suggest potential pharmacogenetic factors influencing fetal drug exposure, warranting larger studies to validate associations and explore clinical implications for neonatal outcomes.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23129,"journal":{"name":"Toxicology Reports","volume":"15 ","pages":"Article 102093"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-20","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144714267","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Coumestrol induces apoptosis and inhibits invasion in human liver cancer cells","authors":"Hoda Abdul-Nabie ,&nbsp;Safia Samir ,&nbsp;Tarek Aboshousha ,&nbsp;Nagui Fares ,&nbsp;Faten Sabra Abo-Zeid","doi":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102091","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102091","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major public health problem, with a poor prognosis in patients with advanced disease. We aimed to investigate the cytotoxic activity of coumestrol against human hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells. Crystal violet (CV) assay was performed for cell cytotoxicity assessment on Vero cells (normal Kidney) and HepG2 cells. Apoptosis was analyzed by Annexin V/FITC staining. The relative expression of BAX, bcl-2, NF-Kβ, PCNA, MMP2, Caspase-3, Caspase-9, COX2, and MMP9 was detected using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR). In addition, immunohistochemical analysis (IHC) of Bax, and PCNA were established. Results indicated that coumestrol induced significant toxicity in HepG2 cells. Annexin V-FITC staining assays revealed that coumestrol-induced cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells was mediated through apoptosis stimulation. The apoptosis in HepG2 cells was mediated through caspase-activation. Cell invasion was inhibited by coumestrol in HepG2 cells via inhibition of MMP-2 and MMP-9 expressions. IHC confirmed the strong expression of Bax and nuclear expression of PCNA in treated cells. To the best of our knowledge, limited studies have investigated the impact of coumestrol. The study showed that coumestrol exhibited cytotoxic and apoptotic effects against HepG2 cells, accompanied by inhibition of invasion-related gene expression.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23129,"journal":{"name":"Toxicology Reports","volume":"15 ","pages":"Article 102091"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-19","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144695181","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Analysing the acute toxicity of e-cigarette liquids and their vapour on human lung epithelial (A549) cells in vitro","authors":"Fern Findlay-Greene,&nbsp;Samantha Donnellan,&nbsp;Sharron Vass","doi":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102092","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102092","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The use of alternative tobacco products such as vaping devices has significantly increased over the last 5-years, with the largest increase being amongst 18–25-year-olds. While the quantity of nicotine is tightly regulated, the composition of e-liquid flavourings is largely unregulated, and often absent from product labels. Herein, we compare the toxicity of carrier liquids propylene glycol (PG) &amp; vegetable glycerine (VG) with five popular flavour concentrates: menthol, cherry, butterscotch, vanilla bourbon and tobacco on human alveolar type II cell-like A549 cells. The flavourings were tested in both liquid and vapour form and a vapour assay was developed to assess cytotoxicity of the flavourings. Our results conclude that menthol liquid was the most cytotoxic (LD₅₀ = &lt;0.5 % over a &lt;4 h exposure). Followed by cherry and vanilla bourbon which elicited a similar response at 4 % over 8 h exposure. Tobacco only reached 50 % toxicity at a concentration &gt; 4 % over 24 h exposure. Butterscotch displayed similar toxicity profiles to PG and VG where cytotoxicity exceeded 20 % at 8 % concentration at all time points. The cytotoxicity of menthol was further evaluated as a vapour, with a significant reduction in viable cells and a 5-fold increase in the number of necrotic cells with only 11 % of cells remaining viable after 5 vaping episodes. Analysis revealed the presence of toxic chemicals and heavy metals in the fluids therefore further research is required to fully elucidate the long-term usage of flavourings with vaping devices and the impact this may have on human lung health.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23129,"journal":{"name":"Toxicology Reports","volume":"15 ","pages":"Article 102092"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-18","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144721095","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Cadmium toxicity alleviation in rats using lactobacillus-fermented and unfermented opuntia ficus-indica L. juices","authors":"Nourhan M. Abd El-Aziz ,&nbsp;Ahmed N. Badr ,&nbsp;Ebtehal A. Farrage ,&nbsp;Amira M.G. Darwish ,&nbsp;Mohamed G. Shehata","doi":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102089","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102089","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div><em>Opuntia ficus-indica L.</em> (prickly pear) contains natural compounds with known anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective effects. This study assessed the ability of normal (NCJ) and Lactobacillus-fermented prickly pear juice (FCJ) to reduce cadmium toxicity in male albino rats. Physical and chemical properties of both juices were analyzed, revealing that fermentation increased total phenolics and flavonoids, boosting antioxidant activity by 48.61 % and extending shelf life by 60 days.To evaluate cadmium detoxification, rats were divided into six groups: Group G1 (saline control), Group G2 (cadmium-intoxicated), Groups G3 and G5 (NCJ and FCJ only), and Groups G4 and G6 (cadmium exposure combined with NCJ or FCJ). After 60 days, the harmful effects of cadmium were assessed by measuring gene expression (TNF-α, P53, BCL-2, IL-1) and examining tissue histology. Both juices reduced cadmium toxicity markers, with FCJ showing superior efficacy. Furthermore, the juice treatments were safe for the rats, as no adverse effects were observed in Groups G3 and G5. These findings suggest that Lactobacillus-fermented juices may be effective in reducing cadmium contamination and promoting detoxification in biological systems.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23129,"journal":{"name":"Toxicology Reports","volume":"15 ","pages":"Article 102089"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-17","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144663495","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Perspective on health and ecological risk assessments of potentially toxic metal(loid)s using aquatic biodiversity as biomonitoring indicators","authors":"Lawrence Olusegun Ajala ,&nbsp;Jonathan E.H. Wilson ,&nbsp;Mintesinot Jiru ,&nbsp;Maurice O. Iwunze","doi":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102086","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102086","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>The presence of potentially toxic metal(loid)s in the environment is a global concern due to their hazards to humans and ecosystems. This review examines the sources, impacts, and human health and ecological risk assessment of potentially toxic metal(loid)s, focusing on the role of aquatic biodiversity as biomonitoring indicators. Using specific keywords, peer-reviewed studies spanning 2000–2024 were mined and reviewed to identify the trends of potentially toxic metal(loid)s in the marine environment and their resultant human health risks. Accordingly, findings indicated that potentially toxic metal(loid)s found their way into water bodies primarily via mining and smelting, industrial discharge, agricultural practices, stormwater runoff, and indiscriminate waste disposal. In the marine environment, this menace leads to bioaccumulation in aquatic biodiversity, disruption of food chains, reduced or loss of biodiversity, degradation of water quality, and behavioral changes in biodiversity. Through food chain transfer, humans are exposed to health risks such as increased cancer risk, kidney and liver damage, gastrointestinal distress, neurological damage, cardiovascular diseases, bone weakness, and reproductive and developmental defects. The review also revealed a strong correlation between aquatic organisms- like fish, bivalves, invertebrates, and macrophytes- and the accumulation of metal(loid). This highlights their valuable roles in long-term pollution monitoring and their potential as early warning indicators. Applying real-time measurements of concentration levels and associated risks offers a revolutionary approach to ecological and human health risk assessments of potentially toxic metal(loid)s. This will permit the optimal use of predictive modeling, accurate and effective monitoring, and early interventions to guarantee sustainability and prevent environmental and public health. The findings of this study hold great promise for improving the sustainability of ecosystems and human populations.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23129,"journal":{"name":"Toxicology Reports","volume":"15 ","pages":"Article 102086"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-15","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144653163","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}

{"title":"Aflatoxins and fumonisins in nixtamalized corn dough from El Salvador: A two-year survey","authors":"Roberto Hernandez-Rauda ,&nbsp;Oscar Peña-Rodas ,&nbsp;Gissell Arbaiza-Rodríguez ,&nbsp;Marvin Cuadra-Escobar ,&nbsp;Martha Guzman-Rodríguez","doi":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102087","DOIUrl":"10.1016/j.toxrep.2025.102087","url":null,"abstract":"<div><div>Corn is a staple of the Salvadoran diet but is vulnerable to contamination by aflatoxins and fumonisins. While these mycotoxins have been studied in nearby countries, El Salvador lacks similar data, despite over 90 % of its population consuming corn derivatives. This study aimed to monitor aflatoxin and fumonisin levels in nixtamalized corn dough used for making tortillas and assess daily intake for potential exposure. Aflatoxin-positive cases were low at 20 %, with less than 2 % of samples exceeding 10 µg/kg, and none exceeded this limit on average. Fumonisin-positive cases were also low (&lt; 7 %) and only detected in the dry season, with all cases exceeding the maximum limit of 1 mg/kg. The estimated daily intake of aflatoxin exceeded the recommended guidance value of 0 ng/kg body weight per day, varying by locality and season. Moreover, all fumonisin daily intake measurements surpassed the maximum limit of 1 µg/kg body weight per day, showing no seasonal variation. Thus, consuming nixtamalized corn dough contaminated with these mycotoxins poses a potential health risk to Salvadorans.</div></div>","PeriodicalId":23129,"journal":{"name":"Toxicology Reports","volume":"15 ","pages":"Article 102087"},"PeriodicalIF":0.0,"publicationDate":"2025-07-14","publicationTypes":"Journal Article","fieldsOfStudy":null,"isOpenAccess":false,"openAccessPdf":"","citationCount":null,"resultStr":null,"platform":"Semanticscholar","paperid":"144653142","PeriodicalName":null,"FirstCategoryId":null,"ListUrlMain":null,"RegionNum":0,"RegionCategory":"","ArticlePicture":[],"TitleCN":null,"AbstractTextCN":null,"PMCID":"","EPubDate":null,"PubModel":null,"JCR":null,"JCRName":null,"Score":null,"Total":0}